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Earmarked funding for multilateral development cooperation: asset and impediment

Multilateral cooperation means that states can collectively achieve more than they can through individual and bilateral efforts alone. Multilateral organisations are important instruments for this: they have a greater geographic and thematic reach, operate at a larger scale and stand for multilateral norms and values. Funding provides an important basis for multilateral development cooperation – only with sufficient core funding at their disposal can multilaterals effectively and independently perform the functions member states expect. This includes a problem-driven allocation of resources, strategic orientation, and flexibility in the implementation of and advocacy for internationally agreed values, norms and standards. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has demonstrated the need for international cooperation to deal with multiple crises that affect all societies. It has also proved the value of multilateral organisations that can combat the spread of COVID-19 worldwide and support countries where health systems are weakest.
Over the last three decades, the funding trend for multilateral organisations has been towards ever greater shares of earmarked funding, whereas core funding has grown much more slowly or has even declined for some organisations.
A contribution is earmarked when a contributor directs it to a specific pooled fund, programme or – most typically – a project in a specific country. The substantial increase in such earmarked (also “restricted”, “bi-multi”) funding has certainly buoyed organisations and helped to close many funding gaps.
However, such atomised funding practices come with the risk of instrumentalising multilateral organisations for project implementation purposes, and by doing so, reducing their programmatic coherence, effectiveness, efficiency and legitimacy. For contributors, earmarking has often been a politically convenient choice. It provides them with control over the use of their resources and visibility for results achieved, all at attractively low implementation costs. However, both the direct implications of earmarking for specific interventions and the more systemic effects on the effectiveness and efficiency of the multilateral organisations tend to be overlooked. At the scale we see it today, earmarking may actually undermine the ability of multilaterals to fulfil the member states’ expectations and make full use of their unique assets to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
To fully harness the potential of multilateral development cooperation, both member states and multilateral organisations have to change course.
• A larger number of contributors – also beyond the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC) – should contribute additional funds to the multilateral development system.
• Contributors should reverse the trend of growing shares of earmarked funding by increasing core funds across organisations.
• Contributors should use earmarked funding more prudently to support rather than undermine multilateral functions. Multi-donor pooled funds are a viable alternative.
• Multilaterals should invest in transparent institutional mechanisms that provide checks for resource mobilisation.

Earmarked funding for multilateral development cooperation: asset and impediment

Multilateral cooperation means that states can collectively achieve more than they can through individual and bilateral efforts alone. Multilateral organisations are important instruments for this: they have a greater geographic and thematic reach, operate at a larger scale and stand for multilateral norms and values. Funding provides an important basis for multilateral development cooperation – only with sufficient core funding at their disposal can multilaterals effectively and independently perform the functions member states expect. This includes a problem-driven allocation of resources, strategic orientation, and flexibility in the implementation of and advocacy for internationally agreed values, norms and standards. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has demonstrated the need for international cooperation to deal with multiple crises that affect all societies. It has also proved the value of multilateral organisations that can combat the spread of COVID-19 worldwide and support countries where health systems are weakest.
Over the last three decades, the funding trend for multilateral organisations has been towards ever greater shares of earmarked funding, whereas core funding has grown much more slowly or has even declined for some organisations.
A contribution is earmarked when a contributor directs it to a specific pooled fund, programme or – most typically – a project in a specific country. The substantial increase in such earmarked (also “restricted”, “bi-multi”) funding has certainly buoyed organisations and helped to close many funding gaps.
However, such atomised funding practices come with the risk of instrumentalising multilateral organisations for project implementation purposes, and by doing so, reducing their programmatic coherence, effectiveness, efficiency and legitimacy. For contributors, earmarking has often been a politically convenient choice. It provides them with control over the use of their resources and visibility for results achieved, all at attractively low implementation costs. However, both the direct implications of earmarking for specific interventions and the more systemic effects on the effectiveness and efficiency of the multilateral organisations tend to be overlooked. At the scale we see it today, earmarking may actually undermine the ability of multilaterals to fulfil the member states’ expectations and make full use of their unique assets to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
To fully harness the potential of multilateral development cooperation, both member states and multilateral organisations have to change course.
• A larger number of contributors – also beyond the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC) – should contribute additional funds to the multilateral development system.
• Contributors should reverse the trend of growing shares of earmarked funding by increasing core funds across organisations.
• Contributors should use earmarked funding more prudently to support rather than undermine multilateral functions. Multi-donor pooled funds are a viable alternative.
• Multilaterals should invest in transparent institutional mechanisms that provide checks for resource mobilisation.

Earmarked funding for multilateral development cooperation: asset and impediment

Multilateral cooperation means that states can collectively achieve more than they can through individual and bilateral efforts alone. Multilateral organisations are important instruments for this: they have a greater geographic and thematic reach, operate at a larger scale and stand for multilateral norms and values. Funding provides an important basis for multilateral development cooperation – only with sufficient core funding at their disposal can multilaterals effectively and independently perform the functions member states expect. This includes a problem-driven allocation of resources, strategic orientation, and flexibility in the implementation of and advocacy for internationally agreed values, norms and standards. The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has demonstrated the need for international cooperation to deal with multiple crises that affect all societies. It has also proved the value of multilateral organisations that can combat the spread of COVID-19 worldwide and support countries where health systems are weakest.
Over the last three decades, the funding trend for multilateral organisations has been towards ever greater shares of earmarked funding, whereas core funding has grown much more slowly or has even declined for some organisations.
A contribution is earmarked when a contributor directs it to a specific pooled fund, programme or – most typically – a project in a specific country. The substantial increase in such earmarked (also “restricted”, “bi-multi”) funding has certainly buoyed organisations and helped to close many funding gaps.
However, such atomised funding practices come with the risk of instrumentalising multilateral organisations for project implementation purposes, and by doing so, reducing their programmatic coherence, effectiveness, efficiency and legitimacy. For contributors, earmarking has often been a politically convenient choice. It provides them with control over the use of their resources and visibility for results achieved, all at attractively low implementation costs. However, both the direct implications of earmarking for specific interventions and the more systemic effects on the effectiveness and efficiency of the multilateral organisations tend to be overlooked. At the scale we see it today, earmarking may actually undermine the ability of multilaterals to fulfil the member states’ expectations and make full use of their unique assets to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
To fully harness the potential of multilateral development cooperation, both member states and multilateral organisations have to change course.
• A larger number of contributors – also beyond the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC) – should contribute additional funds to the multilateral development system.
• Contributors should reverse the trend of growing shares of earmarked funding by increasing core funds across organisations.
• Contributors should use earmarked funding more prudently to support rather than undermine multilateral functions. Multi-donor pooled funds are a viable alternative.
• Multilaterals should invest in transparent institutional mechanisms that provide checks for resource mobilisation.

Warum die deutsche EU-Ratspräsidentschaft die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone in den Fokus rücken sollte

In kaum einer anderen Region hat die Covid-19-Pandemie ihre strukturellen Integrationsprobleme in den Welthandel derart offengelegt wie in Afrika. Afrikanische Exporte waren bereits zu Beginn der Corona-Krise von negativen Auswirkungen der Preisturbulenzen auf den internationalen Rohstoffmärkten betroffen. Gleichzeitig führten Handelsbeschränkungen zu erheblichen Importrückgängen bei Grundnahrungsmitteln, Medikamenten oder medizinischer Ausrüstung. Die Afrikanische Entwicklungsbank erwartet, dass die Covid-19-Pandemie einen Wirtschaftseinbruch von 3,4 Prozent in diesem Jahr zur Folge hat. Einen entscheidenden Schlüssel zur Überwindung dieser Krise halten die afrikanischen Länder selbst in der Hand: die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone (AfCFTA). Die EU unter deutscher Ratspräsidentschaft sollte die afrikanische Länder dabei unterstützen.

Bereits im Mai 2019 wurde das Abkommen zur Errichtung der AfCFTA ratifiziert und schuf damit die Grundlage für die weltgrößte Freihandelszone. Die Umsetzung sollte ursprünglich bereits in diesem Sommer beginnen. Sie wurde jedoch aufgrund der Covid-19-Pandemie um ein halbes Jahr – auf den 1. Januar 2021 – verschoben. Die grundsätzliche Bedeutung der Freihandelszone schmälert dies nicht. So soll die AfCFTA den Abbau von Handelsschranken zwischen afrikanischen Ländern beschleunigen, den inner-afrikanischen Handel ankurbeln, regionale Wertschöpfungsketten stärken und Wirtschaftsstrukturen diversifizieren. Mit der AfCFTA wird somit auch die Hoffnung auf eine langfristig bessere Integration Afrikas in den Welthandel verbunden.

Bisher ist das Vorzeigeprojekt Afrikas allerdings noch ein Gerüst, das mit Inhalten gefüllt werden muss. Um den Güterhandel zwischen den afrikanischen Ländern anzuschieben, gilt es, die durch Covid-19 weiter ins Stocken geratenen Verhandlungen über Zollreduktionen zügig abzuschließen. Auch die Ursprungsregeln, also die Bedingungen, unter denen Unternehmen die reduzierten Zölle nutzen können, müssen noch ausverhandelt werden. Um das Potential der AfCFTA voll zu entfalten, werden diese wichtigen ersten Schritte jedoch nicht ausreichen. Untersuchungen der Weltbank und des Internationalen Währungsfonds weisen darauf hin, dass für größere Wohlfahrtseffekte weitergehende Reformen notwendig sind. Zu nennen wären hierbei insbesondere die Vereinheitlichung von nicht-tarifären Handelshemmnissen, wie zum Beispiel bei Hygiene- oder technischen Anforderungen, Maßnahmen zur Vereinfachung, Modernisierung und Harmonisierung von Export- und Importprozessen sowie die Förderung des Dienstleistungs- und Onlinehandels.

Um diese strukturellen Baustellen zu bearbeiten, braucht es vor allem eines: erhebliches politisches Engagement der beteiligten afrikanischen Regierungen für die Umsetzung sowie die übergreifende Vision der AfCFTA. Hierbei ist jedoch zu befürchten, dass die Aus- und Nachwirkungen der Covid-19-Pandemie zu einer – zumindest zeitweisen – Verschiebung von wirtschaftspolitischen Prioritäten führen. Insbesondere kostenintensive Infrastrukturinvestitionen könnten der Pandemiebekämpfung zum Opfer fallen und Rufe nach protektionistischen Maßnahmen lauter werden. Die Verschiebung des Startschusses für die AfCFTA ist damit gleichsam Möglichkeit und Verpflichtung für externe Partner, dieses Abkommens noch stärker zu unterstützen.

Die kontinentale Freihandelszone bietet eine neue Gelegenheit für afrikanische und europäische Akteure, sich zunehmend auf Augenhöhe zu begegnen. Die AfCFTA kann als Plattform für eine neue politische Partnerschaft auf der Grundlage des gegenseitigen Erfahrungsaustauschs über regionale Integration fungieren. Zusätzlich zur Förderung wechselseitiger, wirtschaftlicher Interessen würde eine intensive Kooperation zwischen Afrika und der EU ein starkes Signal für Multilateralismus und globale Zusammenarbeit senden.

Die europäische und deutsche Entwicklungszusammenarbeit sollte die AfCFTA ins Zentrum ihrer handelspolitischen Unterstützung stellen. Sie sollte gezielt die Implementierung und Vertiefung der Freihandelszone voranbringen. Die Unterstützung der EU für die AfCFTA kann jedoch nur dann wirksam sein, wenn sie nicht nur gut koordiniert ist, sondern auch auf die afrikanischen Bedürfnisse und Prioritäten abgestimmt ist. Dies setzt voraus, dass die afrikanischen Staaten sich darauf fokussieren, eine kontinentale Unterstützungs- und Investitionsagenda zu entwickeln und umsetzen, dass die EU-Maßnahmen sich hieran orientieren und die EU keine eigenen Agenden und Interessen durchsetzt. Aus eigener Erfahrung weiß die EU, dass ein Binnenmarkt nicht von heute auf morgen entsteht, und sollte verlässlich und partnerschaftlich gegenüber den afrikanischen Ländern agieren. Die deutsche Ratspräsidentschaft sollte sich für die Schaffung einer gemeinsamen Plattform für eine langfristige und konzertierte Unterstützung der AfCFTA sowie der Förderung weiterer europäischer Investitionen in Afrika einsetzen.

Dieser Text ist Teil einer Sonderreihe unseres Formats Die aktuelle Kolumne, welche die EU-Ratspräsidentschaft entwicklungspolitisch einordnet. Sie finden die weiteren Texte hier auf unserer Überblicksseite.

Warum die deutsche EU-Ratspräsidentschaft die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone in den Fokus rücken sollte

In kaum einer anderen Region hat die Covid-19-Pandemie ihre strukturellen Integrationsprobleme in den Welthandel derart offengelegt wie in Afrika. Afrikanische Exporte waren bereits zu Beginn der Corona-Krise von negativen Auswirkungen der Preisturbulenzen auf den internationalen Rohstoffmärkten betroffen. Gleichzeitig führten Handelsbeschränkungen zu erheblichen Importrückgängen bei Grundnahrungsmitteln, Medikamenten oder medizinischer Ausrüstung. Die Afrikanische Entwicklungsbank erwartet, dass die Covid-19-Pandemie einen Wirtschaftseinbruch von 3,4 Prozent in diesem Jahr zur Folge hat. Einen entscheidenden Schlüssel zur Überwindung dieser Krise halten die afrikanischen Länder selbst in der Hand: die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone (AfCFTA). Die EU unter deutscher Ratspräsidentschaft sollte die afrikanische Länder dabei unterstützen.

Bereits im Mai 2019 wurde das Abkommen zur Errichtung der AfCFTA ratifiziert und schuf damit die Grundlage für die weltgrößte Freihandelszone. Die Umsetzung sollte ursprünglich bereits in diesem Sommer beginnen. Sie wurde jedoch aufgrund der Covid-19-Pandemie um ein halbes Jahr – auf den 1. Januar 2021 – verschoben. Die grundsätzliche Bedeutung der Freihandelszone schmälert dies nicht. So soll die AfCFTA den Abbau von Handelsschranken zwischen afrikanischen Ländern beschleunigen, den inner-afrikanischen Handel ankurbeln, regionale Wertschöpfungsketten stärken und Wirtschaftsstrukturen diversifizieren. Mit der AfCFTA wird somit auch die Hoffnung auf eine langfristig bessere Integration Afrikas in den Welthandel verbunden.

Bisher ist das Vorzeigeprojekt Afrikas allerdings noch ein Gerüst, das mit Inhalten gefüllt werden muss. Um den Güterhandel zwischen den afrikanischen Ländern anzuschieben, gilt es, die durch Covid-19 weiter ins Stocken geratenen Verhandlungen über Zollreduktionen zügig abzuschließen. Auch die Ursprungsregeln, also die Bedingungen, unter denen Unternehmen die reduzierten Zölle nutzen können, müssen noch ausverhandelt werden. Um das Potential der AfCFTA voll zu entfalten, werden diese wichtigen ersten Schritte jedoch nicht ausreichen. Untersuchungen der Weltbank und des Internationalen Währungsfonds weisen darauf hin, dass für größere Wohlfahrtseffekte weitergehende Reformen notwendig sind. Zu nennen wären hierbei insbesondere die Vereinheitlichung von nicht-tarifären Handelshemmnissen, wie zum Beispiel bei Hygiene- oder technischen Anforderungen, Maßnahmen zur Vereinfachung, Modernisierung und Harmonisierung von Export- und Importprozessen sowie die Förderung des Dienstleistungs- und Onlinehandels.

Um diese strukturellen Baustellen zu bearbeiten, braucht es vor allem eines: erhebliches politisches Engagement der beteiligten afrikanischen Regierungen für die Umsetzung sowie die übergreifende Vision der AfCFTA. Hierbei ist jedoch zu befürchten, dass die Aus- und Nachwirkungen der Covid-19-Pandemie zu einer – zumindest zeitweisen – Verschiebung von wirtschaftspolitischen Prioritäten führen. Insbesondere kostenintensive Infrastrukturinvestitionen könnten der Pandemiebekämpfung zum Opfer fallen und Rufe nach protektionistischen Maßnahmen lauter werden. Die Verschiebung des Startschusses für die AfCFTA ist damit gleichsam Möglichkeit und Verpflichtung für externe Partner, dieses Abkommens noch stärker zu unterstützen.

Die kontinentale Freihandelszone bietet eine neue Gelegenheit für afrikanische und europäische Akteure, sich zunehmend auf Augenhöhe zu begegnen. Die AfCFTA kann als Plattform für eine neue politische Partnerschaft auf der Grundlage des gegenseitigen Erfahrungsaustauschs über regionale Integration fungieren. Zusätzlich zur Förderung wechselseitiger, wirtschaftlicher Interessen würde eine intensive Kooperation zwischen Afrika und der EU ein starkes Signal für Multilateralismus und globale Zusammenarbeit senden.

Die europäische und deutsche Entwicklungszusammenarbeit sollte die AfCFTA ins Zentrum ihrer handelspolitischen Unterstützung stellen. Sie sollte gezielt die Implementierung und Vertiefung der Freihandelszone voranbringen. Die Unterstützung der EU für die AfCFTA kann jedoch nur dann wirksam sein, wenn sie nicht nur gut koordiniert ist, sondern auch auf die afrikanischen Bedürfnisse und Prioritäten abgestimmt ist. Dies setzt voraus, dass die afrikanischen Staaten sich darauf fokussieren, eine kontinentale Unterstützungs- und Investitionsagenda zu entwickeln und umsetzen, dass die EU-Maßnahmen sich hieran orientieren und die EU keine eigenen Agenden und Interessen durchsetzt. Aus eigener Erfahrung weiß die EU, dass ein Binnenmarkt nicht von heute auf morgen entsteht, und sollte verlässlich und partnerschaftlich gegenüber den afrikanischen Ländern agieren. Die deutsche Ratspräsidentschaft sollte sich für die Schaffung einer gemeinsamen Plattform für eine langfristige und konzertierte Unterstützung der AfCFTA sowie der Förderung weiterer europäischer Investitionen in Afrika einsetzen.

Dieser Text ist Teil einer Sonderreihe unseres Formats Die aktuelle Kolumne, welche die EU-Ratspräsidentschaft entwicklungspolitisch einordnet. Sie finden die weiteren Texte hier auf unserer Überblicksseite.

Warum die deutsche EU-Ratspräsidentschaft die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone in den Fokus rücken sollte

In kaum einer anderen Region hat die Covid-19-Pandemie ihre strukturellen Integrationsprobleme in den Welthandel derart offengelegt wie in Afrika. Afrikanische Exporte waren bereits zu Beginn der Corona-Krise von negativen Auswirkungen der Preisturbulenzen auf den internationalen Rohstoffmärkten betroffen. Gleichzeitig führten Handelsbeschränkungen zu erheblichen Importrückgängen bei Grundnahrungsmitteln, Medikamenten oder medizinischer Ausrüstung. Die Afrikanische Entwicklungsbank erwartet, dass die Covid-19-Pandemie einen Wirtschaftseinbruch von 3,4 Prozent in diesem Jahr zur Folge hat. Einen entscheidenden Schlüssel zur Überwindung dieser Krise halten die afrikanischen Länder selbst in der Hand: die Panafrikanische Freihandelszone (AfCFTA). Die EU unter deutscher Ratspräsidentschaft sollte die afrikanische Länder dabei unterstützen.

Bereits im Mai 2019 wurde das Abkommen zur Errichtung der AfCFTA ratifiziert und schuf damit die Grundlage für die weltgrößte Freihandelszone. Die Umsetzung sollte ursprünglich bereits in diesem Sommer beginnen. Sie wurde jedoch aufgrund der Covid-19-Pandemie um ein halbes Jahr – auf den 1. Januar 2021 – verschoben. Die grundsätzliche Bedeutung der Freihandelszone schmälert dies nicht. So soll die AfCFTA den Abbau von Handelsschranken zwischen afrikanischen Ländern beschleunigen, den inner-afrikanischen Handel ankurbeln, regionale Wertschöpfungsketten stärken und Wirtschaftsstrukturen diversifizieren. Mit der AfCFTA wird somit auch die Hoffnung auf eine langfristig bessere Integration Afrikas in den Welthandel verbunden.

Bisher ist das Vorzeigeprojekt Afrikas allerdings noch ein Gerüst, das mit Inhalten gefüllt werden muss. Um den Güterhandel zwischen den afrikanischen Ländern anzuschieben, gilt es, die durch Covid-19 weiter ins Stocken geratenen Verhandlungen über Zollreduktionen zügig abzuschließen. Auch die Ursprungsregeln, also die Bedingungen, unter denen Unternehmen die reduzierten Zölle nutzen können, müssen noch ausverhandelt werden. Um das Potential der AfCFTA voll zu entfalten, werden diese wichtigen ersten Schritte jedoch nicht ausreichen. Untersuchungen der Weltbank und des Internationalen Währungsfonds weisen darauf hin, dass für größere Wohlfahrtseffekte weitergehende Reformen notwendig sind. Zu nennen wären hierbei insbesondere die Vereinheitlichung von nicht-tarifären Handelshemmnissen, wie zum Beispiel bei Hygiene- oder technischen Anforderungen, Maßnahmen zur Vereinfachung, Modernisierung und Harmonisierung von Export- und Importprozessen sowie die Förderung des Dienstleistungs- und Onlinehandels.

Um diese strukturellen Baustellen zu bearbeiten, braucht es vor allem eines: erhebliches politisches Engagement der beteiligten afrikanischen Regierungen für die Umsetzung sowie die übergreifende Vision der AfCFTA. Hierbei ist jedoch zu befürchten, dass die Aus- und Nachwirkungen der Covid-19-Pandemie zu einer – zumindest zeitweisen – Verschiebung von wirtschaftspolitischen Prioritäten führen. Insbesondere kostenintensive Infrastrukturinvestitionen könnten der Pandemiebekämpfung zum Opfer fallen und Rufe nach protektionistischen Maßnahmen lauter werden. Die Verschiebung des Startschusses für die AfCFTA ist damit gleichsam Möglichkeit und Verpflichtung für externe Partner, dieses Abkommens noch stärker zu unterstützen.

Die kontinentale Freihandelszone bietet eine neue Gelegenheit für afrikanische und europäische Akteure, sich zunehmend auf Augenhöhe zu begegnen. Die AfCFTA kann als Plattform für eine neue politische Partnerschaft auf der Grundlage des gegenseitigen Erfahrungsaustauschs über regionale Integration fungieren. Zusätzlich zur Förderung wechselseitiger, wirtschaftlicher Interessen würde eine intensive Kooperation zwischen Afrika und der EU ein starkes Signal für Multilateralismus und globale Zusammenarbeit senden.

Die europäische und deutsche Entwicklungszusammenarbeit sollte die AfCFTA ins Zentrum ihrer handelspolitischen Unterstützung stellen. Sie sollte gezielt die Implementierung und Vertiefung der Freihandelszone voranbringen. Die Unterstützung der EU für die AfCFTA kann jedoch nur dann wirksam sein, wenn sie nicht nur gut koordiniert ist, sondern auch auf die afrikanischen Bedürfnisse und Prioritäten abgestimmt ist. Dies setzt voraus, dass die afrikanischen Staaten sich darauf fokussieren, eine kontinentale Unterstützungs- und Investitionsagenda zu entwickeln und umsetzen, dass die EU-Maßnahmen sich hieran orientieren und die EU keine eigenen Agenden und Interessen durchsetzt. Aus eigener Erfahrung weiß die EU, dass ein Binnenmarkt nicht von heute auf morgen entsteht, und sollte verlässlich und partnerschaftlich gegenüber den afrikanischen Ländern agieren. Die deutsche Ratspräsidentschaft sollte sich für die Schaffung einer gemeinsamen Plattform für eine langfristige und konzertierte Unterstützung der AfCFTA sowie der Förderung weiterer europäischer Investitionen in Afrika einsetzen.

Dieser Text ist Teil einer Sonderreihe unseres Formats Die aktuelle Kolumne, welche die EU-Ratspräsidentschaft entwicklungspolitisch einordnet. Sie finden die weiteren Texte hier auf unserer Überblicksseite.

Russia in Africa: is great power competition returning to the continent?

Since 2014, Russian involvement in Africa has grown significantly. African leaders have been receptive to these overtures as a result of increasing concerns about growing Chinese dominance, retrenchment of the United States (US) and their interest in diversifying trading and security partners. Russia cultivates these relationships by relying on the legacy of the Soviet Union’s support for anti-colonial and liberation movements, and focuses on strengthening diplomatic, military and economic collaborations. This analysis shows that:
• Overall, Russia’s strategy in Africa appears to involve a mix of arms sales, political support to authoritarian leaders and security collaborations – in exchange for mining rights, business opportunities and diplomatic support for Russia’s foreign policy preferences. The offers of military assistance and political support, especially for authoritarian leaders, have opened doors to Russian firms and strengthened diplomatic relationships. The support of African allies has been especially important to Russia at the United Nations (UN), where African countries account for a quarter of all votes in the General Assembly.
• Russian trade and investment in Africa has grown significantly, particularly in north Africa. Yet, Russia remains a minor economic player on the continent in comparison to China, India or the US. Russia’s support for smaller states, especially those that have been internationally shunned, gives Moscow significant influence in those countries.
• As of autumn 2019, Russia had concluded military cooperation agreements with 21 African countries and is negotiating the establishment of military bases in a number of states. It is also providing counter-terrorism training. Russia is currently the largest supplier of arms to the continent.
• Russia is increasing efforts to influence elections. Its strategy focuses on shoring up authoritarian strongmen in unstable yet resource-rich states thus bolstering these regimes’ ability to persist. These priorities are in stark contrast to popular opinion on the continent, which favours democracy.
• Russia remains a relatively minor economic and political player on the continent, and European Union (EU) and US concerns that Russian expansion in Africa draws the continent into a broader geopolitical struggle between great powers are overstated.
• Germany and the EU should counter Russian assistance to authoritarian leaders by bolstering support for good governance and civil society strengthening initiatives.

Russia in Africa: is great power competition returning to the continent?

Since 2014, Russian involvement in Africa has grown significantly. African leaders have been receptive to these overtures as a result of increasing concerns about growing Chinese dominance, retrenchment of the United States (US) and their interest in diversifying trading and security partners. Russia cultivates these relationships by relying on the legacy of the Soviet Union’s support for anti-colonial and liberation movements, and focuses on strengthening diplomatic, military and economic collaborations. This analysis shows that:
• Overall, Russia’s strategy in Africa appears to involve a mix of arms sales, political support to authoritarian leaders and security collaborations – in exchange for mining rights, business opportunities and diplomatic support for Russia’s foreign policy preferences. The offers of military assistance and political support, especially for authoritarian leaders, have opened doors to Russian firms and strengthened diplomatic relationships. The support of African allies has been especially important to Russia at the United Nations (UN), where African countries account for a quarter of all votes in the General Assembly.
• Russian trade and investment in Africa has grown significantly, particularly in north Africa. Yet, Russia remains a minor economic player on the continent in comparison to China, India or the US. Russia’s support for smaller states, especially those that have been internationally shunned, gives Moscow significant influence in those countries.
• As of autumn 2019, Russia had concluded military cooperation agreements with 21 African countries and is negotiating the establishment of military bases in a number of states. It is also providing counter-terrorism training. Russia is currently the largest supplier of arms to the continent.
• Russia is increasing efforts to influence elections. Its strategy focuses on shoring up authoritarian strongmen in unstable yet resource-rich states thus bolstering these regimes’ ability to persist. These priorities are in stark contrast to popular opinion on the continent, which favours democracy.
• Russia remains a relatively minor economic and political player on the continent, and European Union (EU) and US concerns that Russian expansion in Africa draws the continent into a broader geopolitical struggle between great powers are overstated.
• Germany and the EU should counter Russian assistance to authoritarian leaders by bolstering support for good governance and civil society strengthening initiatives.

Russia in Africa: is great power competition returning to the continent?

Since 2014, Russian involvement in Africa has grown significantly. African leaders have been receptive to these overtures as a result of increasing concerns about growing Chinese dominance, retrenchment of the United States (US) and their interest in diversifying trading and security partners. Russia cultivates these relationships by relying on the legacy of the Soviet Union’s support for anti-colonial and liberation movements, and focuses on strengthening diplomatic, military and economic collaborations. This analysis shows that:
• Overall, Russia’s strategy in Africa appears to involve a mix of arms sales, political support to authoritarian leaders and security collaborations – in exchange for mining rights, business opportunities and diplomatic support for Russia’s foreign policy preferences. The offers of military assistance and political support, especially for authoritarian leaders, have opened doors to Russian firms and strengthened diplomatic relationships. The support of African allies has been especially important to Russia at the United Nations (UN), where African countries account for a quarter of all votes in the General Assembly.
• Russian trade and investment in Africa has grown significantly, particularly in north Africa. Yet, Russia remains a minor economic player on the continent in comparison to China, India or the US. Russia’s support for smaller states, especially those that have been internationally shunned, gives Moscow significant influence in those countries.
• As of autumn 2019, Russia had concluded military cooperation agreements with 21 African countries and is negotiating the establishment of military bases in a number of states. It is also providing counter-terrorism training. Russia is currently the largest supplier of arms to the continent.
• Russia is increasing efforts to influence elections. Its strategy focuses on shoring up authoritarian strongmen in unstable yet resource-rich states thus bolstering these regimes’ ability to persist. These priorities are in stark contrast to popular opinion on the continent, which favours democracy.
• Russia remains a relatively minor economic and political player on the continent, and European Union (EU) and US concerns that Russian expansion in Africa draws the continent into a broader geopolitical struggle between great powers are overstated.
• Germany and the EU should counter Russian assistance to authoritarian leaders by bolstering support for good governance and civil society strengthening initiatives.

Conservationists' perspectives on poverty: an empirical study

1. Biodiversity conservation interventions have long confronted challenges of human poverty. The ethical foundations of international conservation, including conservation's relationship with poverty, are currently being interrogated in animated debates about the future of conservation. However, while some commentary exists, empirical analysis of conservation practitioner perspectives on poverty, and their ethical justification, has been lacking thus far.

2. We used Q methodology complemented by more detailed qualitative analysis to examine empirically perspectives on poverty and conservation within the conservation movement, and compare these empirical discourses to positions within the literature. We sampled conservation practitioners in western headquartered organizations, and in Bolivia, China, Nepal and Uganda, thereby giving indications of these perspectives in Latin America, Asia and Africa.

3. While there are some elements of consensus, for instance the principle that the poor should not shoulder the costs of conserving a global public good, the three elicited discourses diverge in a number of ways. Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism differentiate the perspectives, but beyond this, there are two distinct framings of poverty which conservation practitioners variously adhere to.

4. The first prioritizes welfare, needs and sufficientarianism, and is more strongly associated with the China, Nepal and Uganda case studies. The second framing of poverty focuses much more on the need for ‘do no harm’ principles and safeguards, and follows an internationalized human rights‐oriented discourse.

5. There are also important distinctions between discourses about whether poverty is characterized as a driver of degradation, or more emphasis is placed on overconsumption and affluence in perpetuating conservation threats. This dimension particularly illuminates shifts in thinking in the 30 or so years since the Brundtland report, and reflecting new global realities.

6. This analysis serves to update, parse and clarify differing perspectives on poverty within the conservation, and broader environmental movement, to illuminate consensual aspects between perspectives, and reveal where critical differences remain.

Conservationists' perspectives on poverty: an empirical study

1. Biodiversity conservation interventions have long confronted challenges of human poverty. The ethical foundations of international conservation, including conservation's relationship with poverty, are currently being interrogated in animated debates about the future of conservation. However, while some commentary exists, empirical analysis of conservation practitioner perspectives on poverty, and their ethical justification, has been lacking thus far.

2. We used Q methodology complemented by more detailed qualitative analysis to examine empirically perspectives on poverty and conservation within the conservation movement, and compare these empirical discourses to positions within the literature. We sampled conservation practitioners in western headquartered organizations, and in Bolivia, China, Nepal and Uganda, thereby giving indications of these perspectives in Latin America, Asia and Africa.

3. While there are some elements of consensus, for instance the principle that the poor should not shoulder the costs of conserving a global public good, the three elicited discourses diverge in a number of ways. Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism differentiate the perspectives, but beyond this, there are two distinct framings of poverty which conservation practitioners variously adhere to.

4. The first prioritizes welfare, needs and sufficientarianism, and is more strongly associated with the China, Nepal and Uganda case studies. The second framing of poverty focuses much more on the need for ‘do no harm’ principles and safeguards, and follows an internationalized human rights‐oriented discourse.

5. There are also important distinctions between discourses about whether poverty is characterized as a driver of degradation, or more emphasis is placed on overconsumption and affluence in perpetuating conservation threats. This dimension particularly illuminates shifts in thinking in the 30 or so years since the Brundtland report, and reflecting new global realities.

6. This analysis serves to update, parse and clarify differing perspectives on poverty within the conservation, and broader environmental movement, to illuminate consensual aspects between perspectives, and reveal where critical differences remain.

Conservationists' perspectives on poverty: an empirical study

1. Biodiversity conservation interventions have long confronted challenges of human poverty. The ethical foundations of international conservation, including conservation's relationship with poverty, are currently being interrogated in animated debates about the future of conservation. However, while some commentary exists, empirical analysis of conservation practitioner perspectives on poverty, and their ethical justification, has been lacking thus far.

2. We used Q methodology complemented by more detailed qualitative analysis to examine empirically perspectives on poverty and conservation within the conservation movement, and compare these empirical discourses to positions within the literature. We sampled conservation practitioners in western headquartered organizations, and in Bolivia, China, Nepal and Uganda, thereby giving indications of these perspectives in Latin America, Asia and Africa.

3. While there are some elements of consensus, for instance the principle that the poor should not shoulder the costs of conserving a global public good, the three elicited discourses diverge in a number of ways. Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism differentiate the perspectives, but beyond this, there are two distinct framings of poverty which conservation practitioners variously adhere to.

4. The first prioritizes welfare, needs and sufficientarianism, and is more strongly associated with the China, Nepal and Uganda case studies. The second framing of poverty focuses much more on the need for ‘do no harm’ principles and safeguards, and follows an internationalized human rights‐oriented discourse.

5. There are also important distinctions between discourses about whether poverty is characterized as a driver of degradation, or more emphasis is placed on overconsumption and affluence in perpetuating conservation threats. This dimension particularly illuminates shifts in thinking in the 30 or so years since the Brundtland report, and reflecting new global realities.

6. This analysis serves to update, parse and clarify differing perspectives on poverty within the conservation, and broader environmental movement, to illuminate consensual aspects between perspectives, and reveal where critical differences remain.

Is it really possible for countries to simultaneously grow and reduce poverty and inequality? Going beyond global narratives

Global narratives underscore that economic growth can often coincide with reductions in poverty and inequality. However, the experiences of several countries over recent decades confirm that inequality can widen or narrow in response to policy choices and independent of economic growth. This paper analyses five country cases, Brazil, Cambodia, Mali, Peru and Tanzania. These countries are the most successful in reducing inequality and poverty while growing robustly for at least a decade since the early 2000 s. The paper assesses how good macroeconomic management, sectoral reform, the strengthening of safety nets, responses to external shocks, and initial conditions all chip away at inequality and support broad growth. Sustained and robust economic growth with strong poverty and inequality reductions are possible across very different contexts and policy choices. The comparative analysis also identifies common building blocks toward success and warns that hard-earned achievements can be easily overturned.

Is it really possible for countries to simultaneously grow and reduce poverty and inequality? Going beyond global narratives

Global narratives underscore that economic growth can often coincide with reductions in poverty and inequality. However, the experiences of several countries over recent decades confirm that inequality can widen or narrow in response to policy choices and independent of economic growth. This paper analyses five country cases, Brazil, Cambodia, Mali, Peru and Tanzania. These countries are the most successful in reducing inequality and poverty while growing robustly for at least a decade since the early 2000 s. The paper assesses how good macroeconomic management, sectoral reform, the strengthening of safety nets, responses to external shocks, and initial conditions all chip away at inequality and support broad growth. Sustained and robust economic growth with strong poverty and inequality reductions are possible across very different contexts and policy choices. The comparative analysis also identifies common building blocks toward success and warns that hard-earned achievements can be easily overturned.

Is it really possible for countries to simultaneously grow and reduce poverty and inequality? Going beyond global narratives

Global narratives underscore that economic growth can often coincide with reductions in poverty and inequality. However, the experiences of several countries over recent decades confirm that inequality can widen or narrow in response to policy choices and independent of economic growth. This paper analyses five country cases, Brazil, Cambodia, Mali, Peru and Tanzania. These countries are the most successful in reducing inequality and poverty while growing robustly for at least a decade since the early 2000 s. The paper assesses how good macroeconomic management, sectoral reform, the strengthening of safety nets, responses to external shocks, and initial conditions all chip away at inequality and support broad growth. Sustained and robust economic growth with strong poverty and inequality reductions are possible across very different contexts and policy choices. The comparative analysis also identifies common building blocks toward success and warns that hard-earned achievements can be easily overturned.

Climate change impacts on human (im-)mobility in Sub-Saharan Africa: recent trends and options for policy responses

This study examines the negative effects of climate change and how they relate to human mobility in designated countries located in East, West and Southern Africa. It outlines the risks on the livelihood faced by many Africans because of increasingly unpredictable weather events that complicate access to primary necessities while deteriorating health infrastructures and slowing down economic growth. Through the lenses of three major climate change impacts – namely: droughts, water scarcity and rainfall variability – it argues that environmental change risks to increase (forced) migration and the number of trapped populations unable to migrate. It concludes with a set of recommendations on how regional policymakers can best deal with future migration movements.

Climate change impacts on human (im-)mobility in Sub-Saharan Africa: recent trends and options for policy responses

This study examines the negative effects of climate change and how they relate to human mobility in designated countries located in East, West and Southern Africa. It outlines the risks on the livelihood faced by many Africans because of increasingly unpredictable weather events that complicate access to primary necessities while deteriorating health infrastructures and slowing down economic growth. Through the lenses of three major climate change impacts – namely: droughts, water scarcity and rainfall variability – it argues that environmental change risks to increase (forced) migration and the number of trapped populations unable to migrate. It concludes with a set of recommendations on how regional policymakers can best deal with future migration movements.

Climate change impacts on human (im-)mobility in Sub-Saharan Africa: recent trends and options for policy responses

This study examines the negative effects of climate change and how they relate to human mobility in designated countries located in East, West and Southern Africa. It outlines the risks on the livelihood faced by many Africans because of increasingly unpredictable weather events that complicate access to primary necessities while deteriorating health infrastructures and slowing down economic growth. Through the lenses of three major climate change impacts – namely: droughts, water scarcity and rainfall variability – it argues that environmental change risks to increase (forced) migration and the number of trapped populations unable to migrate. It concludes with a set of recommendations on how regional policymakers can best deal with future migration movements.

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