European Parliamentary Research Service Blog

Written by Drachenberg and Rebecca Torpey.

Despite predictions of a long and inconclusive meeting, EU leaders achieved a historic and highly symbolic agreement to open accession negotiations with Ukraine and Moldova, grant candidate status to Georgia, and open accession negotiations with Bosnia and Herzegovina, once the latter complies fully with the membership criteria. Even if the European Council did not finalise discussions on the revision of the multiannual financial framework – which includes, inter alia, an aid package for Ukraine – it has moved much further towards an agreement than expected ahead of the meeting, with 26 EU leaders supporting the current proposal. The European Council held a strategic debate on the situation in the Middle East, but did not issue conclusions due to a lack of unity. EU leaders also addressed Ukraine, security and defence, migration, COP28, EU–Türkiye relations, the 2024-2029 Strategic Agenda and the fight against anti-semitism, racism and xenophobia.

1.     General aspects

The European Council began with the customary address by the President of the European Parliament, Roberta Metsola. It saw the return of Donald Tusk, former European Council President from 2014-2019, as Polish Prime Minister, a function he had previously held from 2007 to 2014.

2.     European Council meeting Ukraine

Ahead of the meeting, the Prime Ministers of Estonia and Finland stressed the critical importance of supporting Ukraine, stating that ‘a resolute demonstration of unfaltering long-term support for Ukraine is paramount’. They called for strong budgetary and military support, and for a landmark decision to open accession negotiations with Ukraine. EU leaders reiterated their commitment to providing strong political, financial, economic, humanitarian, military and diplomatic support to Ukraine, even if the lack of a decision on the €50 billion aid package appeared to be a setback.

In terms of military support, EU leaders stressed the importance of accelerating the delivery of missiles and ammunition, notably as part of the delayed initiative to provide one million rounds of artillery ammunition. They also called for more air defence systems for Ukraine, while Russia provided a timely reminder of how critical they were. EU leaders invited the Council to step up work on the reform of the European Peace Facility – an EU instrument which has provided military assistance to Ukraine – and increase financing. Following a European Council request last October, the High Representative (HR/VP) Josep Borrell presented a report on the EU’s future security commitments to Ukraine, which Member States are invited to take forward in the Council. The EU and the Member States will continue diplomatic work to ensure wide support for peace based on Ukraine’s Peace Formula, with a view to organising a Global Peace Summit.

Furthermore, the European Council took note, without endorsing them, of proposals on the use of extraordinary revenues resulting from frozen Russian assets to support Ukraine’s recovery and reconstruction in line with EU and international law.

EU leaders reiterated that Russia and its leadership should be held accountable for the war crimes they have committed, and encouraged the establishment of a tribunal for that purpose. Both Russia and Belarus have been urged to safely return unlawfully deported Ukrainian children and civilians. The European Council reaffirmed its support for the Council of Europe’s register, which tracks the damage caused by Russia’s war of aggression, and calls on states to sign and ratify the Ljubljana-The Hague Convention on International Cooperation in the Investigation and Prosecution of the Crime of Genocide, Crimes against Humanity, War Crimes and other International Crimes.

EU leaders condemned the military support for Russia’s war provided by Iran, Belarus and the DPRK; while not specifically naming China, they urged all countries not to provide material or other support for Russia’s war of aggression. The European Council also welcomed the adoption of the 12th package of sanctions, covering new sectors such as trade in diamonds, despite concerns that Austria would block the agreement. EU leaders reiterated the importance of Ukraine’s grain exports and the EU’s solidarity lanes for food security, particularly for countries in Africa and the Middle East.

Main message of the President of the European Parliament: President Roberta Metsola said that the EU had a moral and strategic obligation to continue political, military, humanitarian, and financial support to Ukraine.

Enlargement

Just after the February 2023 European Council meeting, President Zelenskyy had stressed the importance of opening talks on Ukraine’s EU future in the course of the year. Despite strong doubts ahead of the December 2023 meeting, the European Council managed to reach the historic decision to open accession negotiations with Ukraine – thus bypassing Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán’s threats to block the opening of Ukraine’s accession negotiations. Even when entering the meeting room, the latter had said there was ‘no reason to negotiate membership of Ukraine now’. However, following a suggestion from German Chancellor Olaf Scholz, he left the room to allow a unanimous decision to be taken. EU leaders also agreed to open accession negotiations with Moldova and to grant the status of candidate country to Georgia, with the caveat that the relevant steps set out in the Commission’s recommendations of 8 November 2023 be taken. Moreover, EU leaders asked the Commission to report before March 2024 on the progress in compliance with the membership criteria of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH); if BiH successfully meets the criteria, the European Council would open accession negotiations. EU leaders called on North Macedonia to accelerate its implementation of the changes listed in the Council conclusions of 18 July 2022. As a follow-up to the Western Balkans summit, which preceded the European Council meeting, EU leaders reiterated their commitment to the EU membership perspective of the Western Balkans, and called on them to speed up EU-related reforms and advance on regional economic integration.

Main message of the President of the European Parliament: President Metsola called for the EU to open accession negotiations with Ukraine and Moldova, and advocated not diluting the ambitions of the Western Balkans.

Multiannual financial framework

Even if the European Council did not finalise its position on the revision of the multiannual financial framework (MFF), EU leaders moved closer to an arrangement than anyone had expected prior to the meeting, even participants such as Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte. President Charles Michel stated that the MFF revision, which in the latest negotiating box would reduce the fresh funding from €64.6 billion to €21 billion, is firmly supported by 26 EU leaders ‘in all its components and priorities’. Yet, despite attempts to revise the Ukraine proposal by shifting the balance between loans and grants, Orbán would not give in.

The 26 Member States agreed to reinforce new priorities with a total of €64.6 billion, of which €33 billion will be financed by loans and €10.6 billion by redeployments. Scholz stressed that the lion’s share of the reprioritisation of the EU’s budget will be financed through redeployments from the existing EU budget. Ukraine would be receiving an additional €50 billion, €2 billion would go to Migration and Border Management, €7.6 billion to Neighbourhood and the World, €1.5 billion to the European Defence Fund under the new STEP (Strategic Technologies for Europe Platform) instrument, €2 billion to the Flexibility Instrument and €1.5 billion to the Solidarity and Aid Reserve. These figures are significantly lower than the budget reinforcements requested by the European Commission and the European Parliament respectively. As unanimity is needed between Member States on this issue, Michel announced that the European Council will revert early next year to this topic, with the aim of ‘convincing all 27 of this proposal’. He subsequently announced that a European Council meeting will be held on 1 February. Michel and Scholz expressed their confidence that the EU will be able to reach an agreement with all 27 Member States.

Commission President Ursula von der Leyen ‘wholeheartedly’ thanked the 26 EU leaders for their support and stated that the Commission would work towards an agreement at 27, while also preparing alternatives ‘to have an operational solution’ whatever the result of the extraordinary meeting.

Main message of the President of the European Parliament: President Metsola called on EU leaders to reach an agreement which respects the prerogatives of the European Parliament as budgetary authority, find a structural solution for managing borrowing costs, make progress on own resources, preserve the Union’s shared values and not cut into flagship EU programmes.

Security and defence

EU leaders did not discuss security and defence at length, but agreed to step up their efforts to implement the Versailles Declaration and Strategic Compass through various initiatives, such as a European defence industrial strategy and a European defence investment programme, which the European Commission was urged to present swiftly. Finland stressed that, with the current Russian threat, a stronger European defence industry was urgent, while Estonia underlined the need for defence readiness in the EU and for a single market for defence, as reflected in the conclusions.

External relations Middle East

Considering the lack of a common EU position, flagged up by Borrell, EU leaders held a strategic discussion on the situation in the Middle East, without written conclusions. Michel stressed that the aim of the discussion was to focus on convergence where it existed among EU Member States and to identify where the EU needed to work towards it. Belgian Prime Minister Alexander De Croo said that the EU needed to have a common position in order to play a serious role in the conflict, but Estonian Prime Minister Kaja Kallas noted how difficult it would be to achieve this.

Michel underlined the differences of opinion between EU Member States on the idea of a humanitarian pause. The Irish Taoiseach, Leo Varadkar, stated that the ‘room has changed’ since the October European Council and ‘there is now a clear majority in favour of a humanitarian ceasefire’. The European Council’s tone, when addressing the situation in the Middle East, has developed from the statement on 15 October. The invitation letter stated that Israel had the right to defend itself ‘against Hamas’ – the nuanced change could be a diplomatic way of indicating that Israel should do more to prevent the killing of civilians when trying to eliminate the terrorist threat of Hamas. Von der Leyen said that both sides needed to do their utmost to protect civilian lives, and Hamas had to release all hostages, adding that getting aid into Gaza was the Commission’s key priority.

EU leaders also considered the future in the region after the end of hostilities, notably options for the management of Gaza and ways of advancing on a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine. Moreover, Borrell and the Commission will compile, for foreign ministers to consider, a list of violent Israeli settlers, who could face sanctions and be banned from travelling to the EU.

Main message of the President of the European Parliament: President Metsola said the EU could play an important role in planning for real, sustainable, lasting stability based on a two-state solution.

Migration

Although finding common ground for joint conclusions has proved difficult at recent meetings, notably in June 2023, EU leaders reiterated their comprehensive approach to migration. As stressed by Michel, the migration topic is a regular discussion point at European Council meetings, making it a ‘rolling agenda point‘. Thus, beyond the lack of lengthy conclusions, placing the topic on the agenda shows the willingness of EU leaders to address the issue and to develop a common EU approach.

While ahead of the meeting several Member States had pushed for increased funds for migration policy as part of the MFF revision, that could not be achieved at this stage as a result of Orbán’s veto. Yet, for now, EU leaders strongly condemned all hybrid attacks, including the instrumentalisation of migrants by third countries for political purposes, stating that the EU would not accept the ongoing hybrid attacks at its external borders launched by Russia and by Belarus.

Main message of the President of the European Parliament: President Metsola urged swift agreement on the asylum package ahead of the EU elections, to show citizens that their concerns are addressed.

Other items Strategic Agenda 2024-2029

As expected, EU leaders took stock of consultations on the next Strategic Agenda, due to be adopted by the summer of 2024 and defining the Union’s priorities for the next institutional cycle.

COP28

The European Council welcomed the COP28 conclusions, notably agreements to keep the 1.5°C objective within reach, for example by accelerating emissions reductions and phasing out fossil fuels.

EU–Türkiye relations

EU leaders noted the joint report by Borrell and the Commission on the state of play of EU–Türkiye relations, and said they intend to return to the topic at a forthcoming European Council meeting.

Fight against anti-semitism, racism and xenophobia

The European Council reiterated its condemnation of all forms of anti-semitism and hate, intolerance, racism and xenophobia, including anti-Muslim hatred.

Schengen

The Prime Minister of Spain, Pedro Sanchez, indicated that he hoped Bulgaria and Romania would be able to join the Schengen area by the end of 2023.

Read this briefing on ‘Outcome for the European Council meeting of 14-15 December 2023‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Sebastian Clapp.

Drawing on authoritative sources, this glossary offers an overview of common terms used in discussing situations of armed conflict.

• Armed conflict. ‘An armed conflict is said to exist when there is an armed confrontation between the armed forces of States (international armed conflict), or between governmental authorities and organised armed groups or between such groups within a State (non-international armed conflict). Other situations of violence, such as internal disturbances and tensions are not considered to be armed conflicts.’ (International Committee of the Red Cross – ICRC)
• Armistice. A military agreement that puts an end to ongoing hostilities. There are two types of armistice: general (which halts all military operations) and local (which stops operations in a specific area). If the armistice’s duration is not specified, belligerent parties may resume operations at any time, subject to prior notice and in compliance with the terms of the armistice. The state of war continues, with all of its legal ramifications, even after an armistice ends.
• Ceasefire. A suspension of fighting decided by the conflict parties, usually as part of a political process. It often encompasses the whole geographic region affected by the conflict and is intended to be long-term. Usually, the goal is to facilitate communication between the parties, with the ultimate goal of reaching a long-term political agreement.
• Cessation of hostilities (or ‘truce’). The suspension of active hostilities, designed to give conflict parties permission to pause fighting for a variety of reasons, such as to engage in political discourse and work towards a long-term truce. The ICRC uses the term ‘truce’ interchangeably with ‘suspension of hostilities’.
• Civilian. ‘Any person who is not a combatant. When civilians take a direct part in fighting, they lose their protection from attack. (When there is any doubt about a person’s status, he or she shall be considered to be a civilian)’ – ICRC.
• Combatant. In international humanitarian law, the term ‘combatant’ in international armed conflicts refers to members of the armed forces of a party to the conflict (except medical and religious personnel) who are entitled to take a direct part in hostilities. Combatants are obliged to distinguish themselves from civilians and to abide by international humanitarian law. If combatants fall into the hands of their adversaries, they are considered to be ‘prisoners of war’ – ICRC.
  • Non-combatant. ‘A civilian, or a combatant who is hors de combat’. Hors de combat, a term whose literal meaning is ‘out of the fight’, describes ‘combatants who have been captured or wounded or who are sick or shipwrecked, or who have laid down their arms or surrendered, and thus are no longer in a position to fight’ – ICRC.
• Customary international humanitarian law. General practice accepted as international law; this practice is evident, for instance, in official statements made by states, national laws, and case law.
• Days of tranquillity. A mechanism used mostly by UNICEF, frequently in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO), to provide children with access to healthcare during times of conflict, such as by carrying out nationwide immunisation campaigns or other solely humanitarian endeavours. All relevant parties must consent to days of tranquillity, to allow access to medical and other personnel, and must refrain from interfering with their work during those days.
• De-confliction arrangements. The sharing of logistical data to arrange the timing and locations of relief operations between parties involved in the conflict and humanitarian actors. These agreements guarantee that military operations do not put beneficiaries in danger, obstruct the delivery of relief supplies or the execution of humanitarian operations, or jeopardise the lives of humanitarian actors.
• Geneva Conventions. Four treaties adopted in Geneva in 1949 that are the cornerstone of contemporary international humanitarian law and are universally accepted. Every state in the world had acceded to the conventions as of 2006. The four Geneva Conventions protect different groups of people during armed conflict: sick and wounded military personnel in the field; sick and wounded military personnel at sea; prisoners of war; and civilian populations.
  • Additional Protocol I. A treaty adopted in 1977 that applies to international armed conflicts and enhances the protection offered by the four Geneva Conventions. It reinforces the protection of civilians and places additional limitations on how military operations may be carried out.
  • Additional Protocol II. A treaty adopted in 1977 that applies in non-international armed conflicts of a higher intensity than the circumstances covered by Article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions. It also enhances the protection offered by the four Geneva Conventions. Additional Protocol II covers non-international armed conflicts that occur on a state’s territory between that state’s armed forces and organised armed groups or dissident armed forces that are under responsible command, control a portion of the state’s territory, and are capable of conducting coordinated and prolonged military operations.
• Humanitarian corridor. Specific routes and logistical methods decided upon by all relevant parties to permit the safe movement of civilians and/or supplies between locations during hostilities.
• Humanitarian pause. A temporary cessation of hostilities purely for humanitarian purposes. It usually requires the consent of all relevant parties and is intended to allow humanitarian activities within a designated geographic area and timeframe.
• International armed conflict. Said to exist ‘when armed force is used by at least two States against each other even if one of the States does not recognize that it is at war. A state of occupation or a war of national liberation also constitutes an international armed conflict’ – ICRC.
  • Non-international armed conflict. Non-international armed conflict constitutes ‘the use of armed force between governmental authorities and organized armed groups or between such groups within a State. Situations of non-international armed conflict are regulated by common Article 3 and by Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions’ – ICRC.
• International humanitarian law. A body of international law comprised of treaties and customary laws that aims to protect those who are not, or who are no longer, engaged in hostilities. It seeks to restrict the methods and means that may be used in warfare and otherwise lessen the suffering that results from armed conflict.
• (International) human rights law. A body of laws established by custom and treaty with the aim of shielding people’s lives and human dignity from the capricious actions of governments. Everybody is subject to human rights law at all times.
• Jus ad bellum. Literal meaning: ‘law on resort to war’; denotes the legal circumstances, enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations (UN), when one state may resort to the use of force against another.

Article 2.4 UN Charter: ‘All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.’
Article 51 UN Charter: ‘Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations.’

• Jus in bello. Literal meaning: ‘law in war’; also referred to as ‘international humanitarian law’ (IHL).
• Temporary cessation of hostilities. A suspension of fighting decided by all relevant parties, agreed upon for a specific timeframe. It may be undertaken for a number of reasons, including humanitarian ones. The agreement specifies the operational region as well as the timeframe within which particular humanitarian tasks will be completed. As long as the suspension of hostilities remains in force, and failing agreement to the contrary, there must be no change in the positions of the opposing forces.

Sources: ICRC Glossary, Exploring Humanitarian Law; Oxford Public International Law Database; UN OCHA: Glossary of Terms: Pauses During Conflict.

Read this infographic on ‘Armed conflict: A glossary of terms‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Cécile Remeur.

Blockchain and its applications, in particular cryptocurrencies, have grabbed the headlines, but many people still do not know how they work. This briefing provides an overview of the uses and challenges of this technology, based on published information.

Blockchain originated as part of the enabling digital ledger technology (DLT) developed at the end of the 20th century. DLT works as a digital database containing information (as a record book or ledger) that can be simultaneously used and shared through a network (as a shared digital ledger). The technology is considered to render the recorded elements unchangeable (immutable) and the process open (decentralised) by using a publicly accessible network. However, in practice, the outcomes can differ from the initial technological design.

Virtually anything of value (assets) can be tracked and traded on a blockchain. Blockchain works with tokens (values in the digital ledger), tokenisation (using the blockchain for existing assets) and smart contracts (computerised and pre-specified conditions that self-execute when they are met).

Currencies and assets can be exchanged and traded in both the ‘real’ and virtual world. The use of blockchain for currencies originated from an analysis of shortcomings in the traditional financial environment. Crypto assets range from tangible to non-tangible assets, and to understand them one must look into their substance and the conditions attached to them in their digital definition.

After more than a decade, a number of challenges have appeared, ranging from the protection of citizens to the preservation of the legal economy and the carbon impact of crypto assets. This briefing looks at both the implementation of blockchain technology over this period and at whether it has delivered the expected outcomes.

Read the complete briefing on ‘Understanding crypto assets: An overview of blockchain technology’s uses and challenges‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Yann-Sven Rittelmeyer.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 established a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy with a bicameral system in the Cortes Generales (Spanish Parliament). The two chambers are the Congreso de los Diputados (Congress of Deputies) and the Senado (Senate). Both the Congress and the Senate represent the Spanish people, but the Senate is explicitly designated as the House of territorial representation.

Article 137 of the Constitution formalises a quasi-federal system of self-governing regions (CCAA) made up of 17 Comunidades Autónomas and two Ciudades Autónomas, each of which have their regional executive, legislative and judicial branches of governmental administration.

The members of the Congress are elected by universal, free, equal, direct and secret suffrage via a system of proportional representation with closed party lists. The electoral districts are provinces, and each province is allotted a minimum initial representation, while the remaining seats are distributed in proportion to population. Deputies are elected to serve four- year terms, but elections are often called earlier. The last time a term reached its full length was in 2011-2015. Since December 2015, five general elections have taken place, with the latest one on 23 July 2023.

Senators are either elected by provincial constituencies or appointed by regional parliaments. Most of the senators (around three quarters of them in past terms) are elected by universal, free, equal, secret and direct suffrage via a majority system. Voters cast ballots for individual candidates on open lists, meaning they can vote for candidates from different political groups. The appointment of senators by regional parliaments is made through indirect elections: one senator for each CCAA and additional ones for every million inhabitants.

Senators are – similarly to the Congress – elected for four years, but regional legislatures may recall their appointees (Section 18, f, Standing Orders of the Senate). Formally, elections for the Congress and the Senate can be held on different days, but in practice they have always taken place simultaneously.

The powers of the Cortes Generales are enshrined in the Constitution, which holds common provisions for the two Houses as well as specific provisions for each. The main functions of the Cortes Generales are legislative, budgetary (approval of annual state revenue and expenditure), and supervisory (controlling the actions of the government). As far as the CCAAs are concerned, the Constitution lists the competences they may assume (Article 148), allowing for successive expansions through negotiations and/or reforms of their Statutes of Autonomy, within the limits of the exclusive State competences (Article 149). The CCAAs have extended their authority to different areas due to the diversity in each region’s necessities.

The Congress possesses greater legislative power than the Senate. The Congress is the first to be informed about procedures of bills and budgets and it can over-ride most Senate measures. While the Senate offers the possibility of examining the decisions made by the Congress by means of vetoes or amendments, the Congress has the final decision. Furthermore, the Congress authorises the formation of the government and has authority to cause its cessation.

Read the complete briefing on ‘The Spanish Parliament and EU affairs‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Branislav Stanicek and Jakub Przetacznik with Antonio Albaladejo Roman.

The geopolitical dimension of enlargement policy became more pronounced in 2022, when Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia asked to join the EU. Since then, fresh geopolitical challenges have accelerated the need to reform enlargement policy and cemented a shift towards the merit-based integration of new countries. Geopolitical considerations include security and defence and also foreign policy alignment, for instance in terms of relations with strategic competitors, such as China and Russia. Enlargement also presents challenges for other areas, such as the EU’s budget, decision-making and agricultural policy. Regional cooperation and the resolution of bilateral disputes meanwhile remain key elements for aspiring members.

The European Commission presented its annual enlargement reports on 8 November 2023. Its strategic orientations and recommendations include accelerating the accession process with the Western Balkan countries, opening accession negotiations with Ukraine and Moldova, and granting candidate status to Georgia. They build on policy work done in recent years, including the new accession negotiation methodology adopted in February 2020 and a gradual approach to integration endorsed by the Council in June 2022. The European Council is expected to decide on these recommendations during its meeting on 14-15 December 2023.

The two countries most advanced in their accession negotiations, Montenegro and Serbia, opened negotiations in 2012 and 2014 respectively. North Macedonia and Albania opened accession negotiations in 2022. Candidate country since 2022, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and potential candidate country, Kosovo*, have yet to open accession negotiations. Accession talks with Türkiye are on ice.

According to the European Parliament’s 2022 recommendation on the new EU strategy, enlargement policy is ‘the most effective EU foreign policy instrument and one of the Union’s most successful policies’. In 2023, Parliament supported the accession process and the opening of negotiations with Ukraine and Moldova. In addition to its role as the budgetary authority, that endorsing the financial provisions and the budget, Parliament monitors candidates’ overall progress and their implementation of the EU acquis. Parliament’s consent is also required before any accession treaty can be signed.

Read the complete briefing on ‘Enlargement policy: Reforms and challenges ahead‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Clare Ferguson and Katarzyna Sochacka.

The highlight of the December plenary session was Parliament’s award of the 2023 Sakharov Prize to Jina Mahsa Amini and the Woman, Life, Freedom Movement in Iran. Members held a debate with the Council and European Commission on the preparation of the European Council meeting of 14-15 December 2023 and reviewed the Spanish Presidency of the Council. Further debates took place on Council and Commission statements on Parliament’s call for the right to disconnect, the defence of democracy package, European economic security strategy and the planned dissolution of key anti-corruption structures in Slovakia and the implications for the rule of law. Members also debated the European defence investment programme, and discussed Frontex in the light of the fact-finding mission of Parliament’s working group for Frontex scrutiny. Members debated the outcome of the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (COP28). Debates were held on statements by the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, among other topics, on the need to release all hostages, to achieve a humanitarian ceasefire and prospects for a two-state solution in Israel; and in the presence of Commission Vice-President Valdis Dombrovskis, on the environmental consequences of Russia’s aggression against Ukraine.

Sakharov Prize

Members awarded Parliament’s 2023 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought to the late Jina Mahsa Amini and the Woman, Life, Freedom Movement in Iran. Jina Mahsa Amini’s family members were prevented from leaving Iran and could not take part in the ceremony at the European Parliament in Strasbourg. Amini family lawyer and representative, Saleh Nikbakht, and Afsoon Najafi and Mersedeh Shahinkar, Iranian women’s rights defenders, therefore received the prize on behalf of the family.

Critical raw materials

A secure supply of critical raw materials (CRMs) is essential if the EU is to transition to ‘net-zero’ and the digital age. Members debated and adopted the text on the proposed critical raw materials act agreed in interinstitutional negotiations by Members of the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE). To ensure supplies are secure and sustainable, the agreed text requires the EU to extract, process and recycle a certain amount of ‘strategic’ raw materials (SRMs) itself, and emphasises diversifying the EU’s SRM imports. The agreed text adds aluminium to the SRM list, increases the benchmark for EU SRM recycling capacity, and adds rules on waste streams.

European health data space

In the wake of the pandemic and the issues this raised for personal health data, the European Commission proposes to ensure individuals have easy access to their health data and that healthcare systems can exchange data efficiently, by creating a European health data space (EHDS). Parliament debated and adopted a joint Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety (ENVI) and Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) report on the EHDS proposal, which sets Parliament’s position for interinstitutional negotiations. The report calls for stronger rights for citizens to access and control their data and to set a framework for data re-use across the Union. It would also create a right for citizens to obtain a remedy against binding decisions by a digital health authority. The report demands that people can opt out from sharing their data, and that personal electronic health data are stored within the EU.

Minimum requirements for commercial drivers’ breaks and rest periods

As driver fatigue is a major danger to all road users, the EU wants to improve minimum requirements for commercial drivers’ breaks and rest periods for occasional passenger transport in the tourism sector. Members debated and adopted a Committee on Transport and Tourism (TRAN) report, which welcomes the Commission proposals on breaks and rest periods, but requires changes to the way break and rest periods are split. It also calls for better multilingual facilities for uploading digital journey forms. The adopted report sets Parliament’s position for negotiations with the Council.

Revision of the EU ‘Breakfast’ Directives

Breakfast is an important meal in a healthy lifestyle and the EU’s marketing standards on breakfast foods seek to ensure they are top quality. The EU is proposing to revise the ‘breakfast directives’, a group of standards for labelling of foods often consumed at breakfast: honey, jams, jellies and juices. Members adopted an ENVI committee report setting Parliament’s position on the proposal. The report proposes stricter rules on honey labelling and a traceability system. The committee emphasises that ‘no added sugar’ statements should not lead to increased sweetener content or claims of beneficial health effects.

Private international law: Parenthood

When travelling between EU countries, some parents continue to face issues regarding the recognition of their parental status. Members debated and adopted, under the consultation procedure, a Legal Affairs (JURI) Committee report on proposed legislation to harmonise jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition of decisions and acceptance of authentic instruments in matters of parenthood. A European Certificate of Parenthood is also proposed. The committee report calls for adding a remedy for a Member State’s rejection of parenthood status established in a different Member State. It also calls for guidelines to be developed and to link this piece of legislation to that on digitalisation of cross-border judicial cooperation.  

EU-United States relations

With both European and United States (US) elections coming up next year, Members took stock of EU-US relations. Members considered and adopted an own-initiative report from Parliament’s Committee on Foreign Affairs (AFET), which recommends deepening cooperation on foreign, security and defence policy. As recent US legislation on green and chip manufacturing subsidies, as well as ‘Buy American’ rules, create a challenging environment for the EU, the AFET report lists a number of policy recommendations aimed at strengthening transatlantic unity in the face of deteriorating global security. The committee also calls for reinforced parliamentary diplomacy and exchange between European Parliament and US Congress committees in charge of foreign affairs.

EU-China relations

In view of the recent 24th EU-China Summit in Beijing, Parliament debated and adopted an AFET own-initiative report on EU-China relations, stressing China’s international responsibilities: to uphold sanctions against Russia, to pressure Russia to end its war against Ukraine, and to commit to peak its CO2 emissions before 2030. Although partnership with China is essential to tackle global challenges like climate change and debt relief, China’s actions have led the EU to emphasise its role as competitor and systemic rival. The draft report, scheduled for debate on Tuesday, also calls for UN investigation into human rights violations in China, which Parliament has repeatedly criticised. The committee calls for action to suspend extradition treaties with China and Hong Kong, de-risk trade flows, and combat disinformation originating in China.

EU Fisheries Partnership Agreement with Kiribati

Parliament gave its consent to the conclusion of the protocol to the EU-Kiribati Fisheries Agreement. Parliament’s Committee on Fisheries (PECH) report recommended consent to the protocol, which reactivates an agreement that has been dormant since 2015. It will allow four (usually very large) EU tuna purse seine vessels access to Kiribati fishing grounds, in return for a financial contribution and support for its sectoral fisheries policy. A five-year implementing protocol has applied provisionally since October 2023.

Opening of trilogue negotiations

Sixteen decisions to enter into interinstitutional negotiations were approved: four from the Economic and Monetary Affairs (ECON) Committee, six from the TRAN committee, two from the LIBE committee, two from the ITRE committee and one from the Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO) and JURI Committees.

Read this ‘at a glance’ note on ‘Plenary round-up – December 2023‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Marcin Grajewski.

On 8 December, the European Parliament and Council reached a landmark agreement on the rules for using artificial intelligence (AI), including governments’ handling of AI in biometric surveillance and how to regulate AI systems such as ChatGPT. The political deal between the European Parliament and the Council came after more than 2 days of negotiations. If, as expected, the agreed text is formally adopted by both the Parliament and Council to become EU law, the EU will become the first major world power to adopt horizontal legislation governing AI.

The agreement on the Artificial Intelligence Act requires foundation models, such as ChatGPT, and general purpose AI systems (GPAI) to comply with transparency obligations before they are put on the market. These include drawing up technical documentation, complying with EU copyright law and disseminating detailed summaries about the content used for training.

The note offers links to recent reports and commentaries from some major international think tanks and research institutes on artificial intelligence. More publications on the topic can be found in a previous edition of What think tanks are thinking.

The competitive relationship between cloud computing and generative AI
Bruegel, December 2023

Policymakers should use the SETI model to prepare for AI doomsday scenarios
Center for Data Innovation, December 2023

Quantum technologies and cybersecurity in the EU: There’s still a long way to go
Centre for European Policy Studies, December 2023

In tech, the death of the Brussels effect is greatly exaggerated
Centre for European Reform, December 2023

The AI assault on women: What Iran’s tech enabled morality laws indicate for women’s rights movements
Council on Foreign Relations, December 2023

Plato, love, and the philosophical problem of Europe’s AI Act
European Centre for International Political Economy, December 2023

USTR abandons the digital rule book: To China’s potential benefit
Peterson Institute for International Economics, December 2023

AI governance on a global stage: Key themes from the biggest week in AI policy
Atlantic Council, November 2023

How STEP Investment in strategic technologies could help EU regions catch up
Bertelsmann Stiftung, November 2023

How the AI Executive Order and OMB memo introduce accountability for artificial intelligence
Brookings Institution, November 2023

The turmoil at OpenAI reveals underlying structural tensions in the AI industry
Bruegel, November 2023

A dataset on EU legislation for the digital world
Bruegel, November 2023

Compliance principles for the Digital Markets Act
Bruegel, November 2023

The EU AI Act is a cautionary tale in Open-Source AI Regulation
Center for Data Innovation, November 2023

EU policymakers: You’ve done a (mostly) good job on the AI Act. Now finish it already
Centre for European Policy Studies, November 2023

Generative AI: Global governance and the risk-based approach
Centre on regulation in Europe, November 2023

The drama at OpenAI shows that AI governance remains in the hands of a select few
Chatham House, November 2023

Gender is the missing frontier at the UK’s AI Safety Summit
Chatham House, November 2023

AI won’t be safe until we rein in Big Tech
European Policy Centre, November 2023

Towards sovereign AI: Europe´s greatest challenge?
Foundation for European Progressive Studies, November 2023

Powers of AI: A Conversation with Chris Schroeder
German Marshal Fund, November 2023

The geopolitics of generative AI: International implications and the role of the European Union
Fundacion Real Instituto Elcano, November 2023

Awareness of artificial intelligence: Diffusion of information about AI versus ChatGPT in the United States
Kiel Institute of the World Economy, November 2023

What does Biden’s new executive order mean for the future of AI?
Atlantic Council, October 2023

Data strategies for an AI-powered government
Atlantic Council, October 2023

The 5×5: The cybersecurity implications of artificial intelligence
Atlantic Council, October 2023

Congressional oversight of U.S. intelligence: Balancing capabilities and accountability
Brookings Institution, October 2023

Preparing for the virtual AI revolution: EU’s flexible principles imperative
Bruegel, October 2023

Generative AI poses challenges for Europe
Carnegie Europe, October 2023

Why AI will change the core of foreign policymaking
Carnegie Europe, Global Policy, October 2023

Global AI governance is currently like the Tokyo Shibuya crossing: Scrambled
Centre for European Policy Studies, October 2023

When we can no longer believe our eyes and ears
Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, October 2023

A global declaration on free and open AI
Center for Data Innovation, September 2023

How Europe can make the most of AI
Centre for European Reform, September 2023

From risk to revolution: How AI can revive democracy
Chatham House, September 2023

Why AI must be decolonized to fulfil its true potential
Chatham House, September 2023

The President’s inbox recap: AI’s impact on the 2024 U.S. elections
Council on Foreign Relations, September 2023

ChatGPT, chatbots, and more: How is Artificial Intelligence being used in corporate HR departments?
IfO Institute, September 2023

Employing artificial intelligence and the edge continuum for joint operations
Atlantic Council, August 2023

Adapting the European Union AI Act to deal with generative artificial intelligence
Bruegel, July 2023

The environmental dark side of digitalisation: an urban perspective
Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, July 2023

Read this briefing on ‘Artificial intelligence‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Alessandro D’Alfonso, Martin Höflmayr and Giulio Sabbati.

After showing unexpectedly strong economic resilience in the face of the pandemic and the energy price shock triggered by Russia’s war in Ukraine, Europe is bracing for an uncertain soft landing. The latest economic forecast points towards weakening growth. Real GDP growth is expected to be 0.6 % in both the EU and the euro area in 2023, having been revised downwards for the second time this year. This is partly explained by a heavier toll from monetary policy tightening than expected, alongside weak external demand. Inflation has been declining over the past 12 months, to 2.4 % in November in the euro area from its 10.6 % peak a year ago. Nevertheless, annual inflation is expected to be 5.6 % in the euro area, and 6.5 % in the EU, still significantly above the 2 % target. Much of the inflation-dampening effect induced by monetary policy is yet to materialise, as estimates suggest the tightening will have its maximum impact in 2024.

Despite the gloomy economic backdrop, labour markets have proven particularly resilient, with unemployment rates at historic low levels, underscoring a record tight labour market. Higher interest rates are expected to show effects on public debt levels gradually. Debt-to-GDP ratios in the EU have dropped significantly from a historic high at close to 92 % at the beginning of 2021, to 83 % of GDP in 2023, remaining above the pre-pandemic debt levels of around 79 %, while the EU fiscal stance is projected to turn contractionary in 2023.

Downside risks to the economic outlook have increased, with continuing conflicts transmitting uncertainty, particularly visible in energy markets. A recent court decision in Germany that ruled a €60 billion off-budget fund unconstitutional, will compel Germany to re-structure its fiscal policy, with potential spill-over effects in other EU countries.

In that context, this publication, the fourth in a series updated twice a year, aims to track the state of the EU economy and trends in the recovery. It also provides a snapshot of the deployment of the Next Generation EU (NGEU) recovery instrument, which is about to enter the second half of its lifecycle. Its main tool for investment and reform, the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) is being reinforced, with new REPowerEU chapters focused on energy. In 2024, the RRF is projected to be a key driver of public investment in the EU.

Read this infographic on ‘Monitoring the EU’s economic outlook: Seeking to avoid a hard landing‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Quarterly GDP growth in the EU Member States % change, Q4-2019 and Q3-2023 Quarterly, % change compared to same period in previous year Change Q4-2019 vs Q2-2023, percentage points of GDP Unemployment rate by gender in the EU Member States Q2-2023, % of the labour force Total unemployment rate in the EU EU inflation, Harmonised index of consumer prices (HICP) monthly data, % EU inflation, share of HICP items by change in annual inflation rate, % 12-months moving average, January 2009 – September 2023 The roll-out of Next Generation EU (NGEU) and its Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) Net lending (+) or net borrowing (-) as % of GDP

European legislation sets out common rules on who can stand as a candidate in European elections. In addition, national legislation defines more detailed rules, which may differ from country to country.

According to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, citizens of EU countries have the right to vote and to stand as candidates in European elections in their country of residence, under the same conditions as nationals.

Under the European Electoral Act, which sets out rules applicable in all EU countries, a citizen can only stand as a candidate in one EU country in the same election.

An overview of the requirements for standing as a candidate in the European elections is available on the Your Europe website, which also provides links to country-specific information.

For specific details on electoral procedures in EU countries, citizens should contact the respective national administration.

Revising the rules for European elections

In May 2022, the European Parliament proposed to introduce a number of changes to the European Electoral Act.

Parliament’s proposed changes include:

• setting a minimum common age of 18 years to stand as a candidate,
• electing a number of Members of the European Parliament on EU-wide lists,
• requiring candidate lists to be gender equal, either by using a zipped system (alternation of candidates of both genders on the ballot paper) or quotas.

Parliament’s proposal is currently under discussion at the Council, who has the power to change these rules.

Further information

• Minimum age to stand as a candidate in European elections, European Parliamentary Research Service, June 2023
• Proposing new rules for European elections, European Parliamentary Research Service, April 2022
• Towards new rules for European elections?, European Parliamentary Research Service, September 2022
• Transnational electoral lists: Ways to Europeanise elections to the European Parliament, Study, European Parliamentary Research Service, February 2021
• The European Parliament: electoral procedures, Fact sheets on the European Union, European Parliament
• Publications on European elections, Publications Office of the European Union

Keep sending your questions to the Citizens’ Enquiries Unit (Ask EP)! We reply in the EU language that you use to write to us.

Written by Ivana Katsarova (1st edition).

Every year, 60 million tonnes of food waste and 12.6 million tonnes of textile waste are generated in the EU. On 5 July 2023, the European Commission tabled a proposal for a targeted revision of EU waste rules. Seeking to accelerate the EU’s progress towards United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12.3 (halving food waste at the retail and consumer level by 2030), the proposal would mean EU countries would have to reduce food waste by 10 % in processing and manufacturing, and by 30 % per capita, jointly at retail and consumption level, by 2030. The proposal also introduces extended producer responsibility requirements for the textiles sector. These schemes would have to cover the costs of collecting textiles, shoes and textile-related products for re-use or recycling, along with transport and sorting, as well as supporting research and development to improve the sorting and recycling processes.

The proposal attracted a mixed response. While non-governmental organisations criticised the lack of ambition in the binding targets, farm lobbies expressed satisfaction with the derogation for the primary sector.

In the European Parliament, the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety (ENVI) is responsible for the file under the co-decision procedure, with Anna Zalewska (ECR, Poland) as rapporteur. The draft report was presented in committee on 24 October 2023.

Versions

• December 2023: ‘Waste framework directive: A more sustainable use of natural resources‘ (1st edition)

Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2008/98/EC on wasteCommittee responsible:Environment, Public Health and Food Safety (ENVI)COM(2023) 420 final
5.7.2023Rapporteur:Anna Zalewska (ECR, Poland)2023/0234(COD)Shadow rapporteurs:Dace Melbārde (EPP, Latvia)
Heléne Fritzon (S&D, Sweden)
Róża Thun und Hohenstein (Renew, Poland)
Malte Galée (Greens/EFA, Germany)
Marisa Matias (GUE/NGL, Portugal)Ordinary legislative
procedure (COD) (Parliament
and Council on equal footing
– formerly ‘co-decision’)Next steps expected: Committee vote

Written by Clare Ferguson and Katarzyna Sochacka.

During the November II plenary session, Members held a debate with the Council and European Commission on the humanitarian situation in Gaza, the need for the release of hostages and for an immediate humanitarian truce leading to a ceasefire, and on the prospects for peace and security in the Middle East. Further debates took place on the continued threat to the rule of law, the independence of justice and the non-fulfilment of conditionalities for EU funding in Hungary, and the threat to the rule of law resulting from the governmental agreement in Spain. Members also debated the Commission’s lack of legislative follow-up to the Committee of Inquiry to investigate the use of Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware (PEGA).

The Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Nikolay Denkov led this month’s ‘This is Europe’ debate. William Ruto, President of Kenya, addressed the Parliament in a formal sitting. And in the question time session, Commissioner Thierry Breton answered Members’ questions regarding the state of implementation of the EU’s commitment to provide 1 million rounds of artillery ammunition to Ukraine up to March 2024.

2024 budgetary procedure

Members debated and adopted the 2024 EU budget. The negotiations took place against a backdrop of increased spending pressure on the EU’s long-term finances, due to ongoing global challenges. Nevertheless the agreed 2024 EU budget includes €189.4 billion in commitment appropriations and €142.6 billion in payments, including for special instruments such as the proposed Ukraine facility.

Improving Europe’s environment

Parliament adopted a resolution calling for major emitters to make a fair contribution to the loss and damage fund, and underlining the need to support the global energy transition. The debate came ahead of this year’s United Nations Climate Change Conference in Dubai, (COP28), starting on 30 November.

Members debated a report from the Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO) on the right to repair – common EU rules to strengthen the repair market. The proposal aims to reduce inconvenience for consumers and provide financial incentives to encourage companies and consumers to repair broken products. The adopted report recommends extending the legal guarantee period for repaired products by one year, among other things, and sets Parliament’s position for interinstitutional negotiations.

The EU is seeking to strengthen its manufacturing capacity for ‘net-zero’ technologies, by at least 40 % of the EU’s annual deployment needs by 2030. Members debated a report from the Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE) Committee, which proposes to widen the scope of the proposed net-zero industry act to cover additional components, materials and machinery and sets new manufacturing capacity benchmarks. Parliament can now begin trilogue negotiations with the Council.

Members debated a Committee on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety (ENVI) report on the proposed EU carbon removals certification framework to ensure credible governance of trusted EU-certified carbon removals. The ENVI report proposes better definition of the different types of removal – carbon farming, permanent carbon storage, and long-lasting carbon storage in products or materials. It now sets Parliament’s position on the file for interinstitutional negotiations.

Aiming to ensure cleaner air, Members debated an ENVI committee report that sets Parliament’s stance for interinstitutional negotiations on CO2 emission performance targets for new heavy-duty vehicles. The proposed revision brings more vehicles into the scope of the current rules and set a 90 % lower average CO2 emissions target for new vehicles by 2040. New urban buses would have to be zero-emission from 2030.

Packaging waste continues to increase in the EU. An ENVI committee report on reducing packaging waste seeks to strengthen proposals to revise the current EU law. The committee calls to forbid the use of certain potentially harmful substances in food packaging, as well as lightweight plastic carrier bags. Removing the Commission’s proposed targets for take-away food and drink, the report suggests companies should offer the possibility to use reusable packaging at no greater cost, and provide a system for consumers to bring their own container, at a lower price. The vote sets Parliament’s mandate for trilogue negotiations.

Digitalisation of judicial cooperation

Members adopted agreed texts on proposals to update EU legislation to facilitate cross-border judicial cooperation through increased use of digitalisation. Parliament’s Committees on Legal Affairs (JURI) and Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) negotiated the compromise on the proposal, under which the rules on digital communication, in both criminal and civil cases, would become mandatory for cross-border court-to-court communication.

Sustainable use of plant protection products

While pesticides are necessary to protect crops, they can also have harmful impacts on the environment and human health. The Commission proposed to reduce their overall use and risk by 50 %, through binding national targets. No majority could be reached on the ENVI committee report that supported this target, but raised the reduction goal for particularly hazardous pesticides to 65 %. Parliament voted not to refer the report on plant protection products back to the committee, thus the proposal has been rejected.

Amendment of the Treaties

Geopolitical challenges and the prospect of further enlargement have led to calls for measures to make the EU more nimble, democratic and accountable. Members debated and adopted a report by the Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO) setting out proposals for amendment of the EU Treaties. Among many other proposals, the report proposes changes to the majority required to decide EU laws, and a new method to choose the President of the Commission. The report now constitutes Parliament’s position for the resumption of interinstitutional discussions on whether and how to proceed with a revision of the Treaties.

EU-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement

Members followed the Committee on International Trade (INTA) recommendation and gave consent to the free trade agreement (FTA) negotiated with New Zealand. Covering protection of certain EU foodstuff geographical indications, removal of New Zealand tariffs on EU imports, facilitation of cross-border data flows and commitments to International Labour Organization standards and Paris Agreement goals, the EU–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement should lead to an increase in bilateral trade of up to 30 %.

VAT – Rules for the digital age

Parliament adopted a Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs (ECON) report on the proposed directive on value added tax (VAT) in the digital age. Aimed at fighting VAT fraud, and modernising the rules, the ECON report seeks to further cut compliance costs for business, and ensure strict data protection.

Situation of artists and workers in the cultural and creative sectors

The cultural and creative sectors employ around 7.7 million people in the EU. However, they often lack financial and employment security. Parliament adopted a legislative-initiative report from its Committees on Culture and Education (CULT) and on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL), calling on the Commission to propose legislation to improve employment conditions in the sector. Enforceable rules should align national approaches on aspects such as definitions of cultural and artistic activity and social security.

Opening of trilogue negotiations

Members approved several decisions to enter into interinstitutional negotiations: on standards for equality bodies in the field of equal treatment and equal opportunities, from the Committees on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, and Employment and Social Affairs (FEMM/EMPL) after a vote; and, without votes, on the minimum requirement for own funds and eligible liabilities, from the ECON committee; on Union rules on the protection of personal data, and on combating child sexual abuse online, from the LIBE committee; and on ship-source pollution from the Committee on Transport and Tourism (TRAN).

Read this ‘at a glance’ note on ‘Plenary round-up – November II 2023‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Ralf Drachenberg.

‘This is Europe’ – an initiative proposed by the President of the European Parliament, Roberta Metsola – consists of a series of debates with EU leaders to discuss their visions for the future of the European Union. In the address of the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Nikolai Denkov, to the European Parliament on 22 November 2023, historic symbolism – and its importance for today’s and tomorrow’s Europe – was a central theme. Mr Denkov also urged that Bulgaria’s integration into the EU be completed by joining Schengen and the euro area. Recalling that Bulgaria had fulfilled all the requirements for its accession to the Schengen area, he stressed that any further postponement would be unacceptable. In the context of Russia’s war against Ukraine, he pleaded not to give in to war fatigue, but to continue supporting Ukraine. To overcome polarisation in our societies, he also called upon the main political ideologies in the EU not to develop into sharp opposition, but to promote mutual understanding and cooperation. Finally, Mr Denkov emphasised the need to change the public’s views on the EU in many Member States and break with existing stereotypes, and he frequently depicted the EU as a source of ‘generous funds, benefits and a place for better paid work’.

Do not ask what the EU can do for your country, ask what your country can do for the EU.

Nikolai Denkov

Background

Roberta Metsola launched the ‘This is Europe’ initiative shortly after her election as President of the European Parliament in January 2022. Nikolai Denkov is the 11th EU leader to have addressed the Parliament since its Conference of Presidents endorsed the initiative on 28 April 2022.[1] These debates will continue during subsequent sessions. A similar Parliament initiative, ahead of the 2019 European elections, saw a number of EU leaders speak in Parliament’s plenary sessions about their views on the future of Europe. A 2019 EPRS analysis of those debates pinpointed similarities and differences between EU leaders’ views.

Figure 1 – Time devoted by Nikolai Denkov to various topics in his speech. Source: EPRS.

The ‘This is Europe’ initiative is particularly relevant in the context of the Conference on the Future of Europe (CoFoE), and the preparations for the Strategic Agenda 2024-2029.

The CoFoE produced 49 proposals on the EU’s future policies and functioning (see the EPRS overview), including more than 300 measures by which they might be achieved. Research by EPRS has shown that there is significant convergence between the results of the CoFoE and the priorities of the European Council, as expressed in the latter’s Strategic Agenda 2019‑2024 and its conclusions over the past three years. The European Council, on the initiative of its President, Charles Michel, has started the reflection process on the priorities for the next institutional cycle, which will lead to the Strategic Agenda 2024-2029. The first step in the reflection process was a discussion at the informal European Council meeting in Granada on 5-6 October 2023, on the basis of general questions formulated by Charles Michel. The next step involves a series of consecutive group meetings with a small number of EU leaders representing a mix of geographical regions in the EU, political party affiliations and diversity of opinion. Three meetings have taking place to date: on 13 November in Berlin, 14 November in Copenhagen and 16 November in Zagreb. Another meeting is expected to take place in Paris at the end of November.

Main focus of Nikolai Denkov’s speech

Prime Minister Denkov addressed a wide range of topics in his speech to Parliament (see Figure 1). In terms of words, he devoted most attention to i) the war in Ukraine, ii) European history, iii) geopolitical challenges, and iv) enlargement.

War in Ukraine

Mr Denkov warned of increasing signs of war fatigue in the EU, with voices even opposing the provision of support to the Ukrainian people. He stressed that, by helping Ukraine, we were helping Europe. If we did not do so, the situation in Ukraine could tomorrow be duplicated in Moldova, and the day after tomorrow even in one of the European Union Member States.

European history

Mr Denkov underlined that, today, for the first time in centuries, Europe was united in a union of independent and equal states, which is based on solidarity, freedom, democracy, equality before the law, the rule of law, respect for human dignity and the fundamental rights of all citizens.

Geopolitical challenges

Mr Denkov outlined the various ongoing conflicts that have an impact on the EU, such as those in Ukraine, the Middle East, the Far East and central and west Africa, warning that, for some of them, the situation could become further inflamed. He stressed that the EU could not turn a blind eye to these geopolitical challenges.

Enlargement

In the current international context, EU enlargement is becoming extremely important. Recalling that Bulgaria had always supported the accession of the Western Balkans to the EU, Mr Denkov underlined that enlargement nevertheless had to be based on real achievements by the candidates – and not on political calculations. He welcomed the Commission’s recommendation to open accession negotiations with Ukraine and Moldova, in the hope that Georgia would soon join them. For him, the internal reform process to strengthen the EU’s enlargement capacity and the accession negotiations must be parallel processes.

Specific proposals and positions

Prime Minister Denkov used the opportunity to present his views on how the European Union should advance in specific areas, summarised below.

Policy issuePriority action and proposals (quotes)Overcoming political polarisation‘The two main ideological and political trends in the EU, conservatism and liberalism, can and should develop not in sharp opposition, but in mutual understanding and cooperation.’Migration‘We need a new strategy that clearly distinguishes war refugees from economic immigrants. The EU must do its utmost to facilitate the reception of refugees and take all necessary measures to stop and discourage economic migrants.’Security and defence‘The EU must strengthen ties with its strategic NATO allies and strengthen its defence capabilities in cooperation between the countries within the alliance, including carefully considering the idea of creating a single European army.’Russian attacks on Bulgarian society‘Bulgaria is subject to targeted hybrid attacks. Putin’s secret services and propaganda take advantage of our country’s economic and raw material ties to Russia, as well as the historical and cultural ties between our peoples, to divide and confront our society against Russophiles and Euro-Atlanticists.’Table – Specific proposals made by Nikolai Denkov, by policy area

Read this ‘at a glance’ note on ‘‘This is Europe’ debate in the European Parliament: Speech by Nikolai Denkov, Prime Minister of Bulgaria, 22 November 2023‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Written by Andrés García Higuera.

On 7 November 2023 the European Parliament’s Panel for the Future of Science and Technology (STOA) brought together experts on Artificial Intelligence and Large Language Models (LLMs), policy makers and representatives from civil society at a workshop entitled ‘Generative AI: opportunities, risks and challenges’.

STOA Vice‑Chair Ivars Ijabs (Renew; Latvia) opened the event by identifying the 2022 breakthrough in LLMs as a core technology and driver of change that heralded the release of Chat GPT. This technology brings immense opportunities in fields ranging from teaching to industry, but also poses challenges for data governance and has job market repercussions. In view of the economic impact on the EU of potentially missing-out on the technological revolution of recent decades, taking an active role in the AI revolution now appears crucial for the EU’s economic prosperity and competitiveness.

The event continued with a first panel concentrating on the technological aspects of AI. Professor Jan Hajič set the scene by commenting on different AI models, from single-task applications to machine learning‑based systems that focus on speech recognition, transformer architecture for choosing the next word in a sentence, and generative systems that produce a complete text. The panellists commented on current trends, the lifecycle of this technology and the scope of its application. Multilingualism, translation systems and digital language equality were also discussed in relation to digital training techniques and access to data and infrastructure. The assessment of risks and opportunities differ across categories of users, and public acceptability appears to be strongly linked to training. The code of conduct on disinformation, the Digital Services Act, risk assessment and mitigating measures were also mentioned, in relation to fake news and the enforcement of copyright rules within the framework of the AI act. Guardrails are necessary to moderate research and deployment so that innovation can move forward with the required guarantees.

Yordanka Ivanova (DG CNECT) represented the European Commission at the event. She commented on decisions taken while drafting the AI act, which is now under discussion. Future‑proof legislation requires clear definition of terms, systems, opportunities and risks, which is not always possible when dealing with emergent technologies like generative AI. The Commission’s coordinated plan on AI includes action to support AI excellence and development in the EU. Noting that the AI act has reached the final stage of trilogue negotiations, Yordanka Ivanova considers the three institutions (the Commission, Parliament and Council) could reconcile their different approaches and conclude negotiations by the end of the year. The proposed regulation specifies different levels of risk, and was drafted in a broad manner so that it will remain applicable to future technological developments. Since systems such as Chat GPT can be used for low and high-risk applications, the Council’s common position proposes to oblige providers to share the information they require to function, so that users are able to identify the level of risk. The Parliament’s draft focuses on the foundation models and the design and implementation phases, while searching for a common approach that would enable a global convergence with international players.

The second panel focused on the social and ethical effects of Generative AI. It was introduced by Ana García Robles, Secretary General of the Big Data Value Association, who highlighted multidisciplinarity and the need for ethical design, deployment and regulation of AI. The panel discussed the business aspect of AI, AI’s impact on European industrial development and the need to take advantage of the opportunities AI presents, including job creation, while addressing its challenges and risks. The panel called for AI governance and regulation as well as for investment in research and development. As generative AI is a technological breakthrough posing extraordinary regulatory challenges, legislators should protect people by requiring independent audits and enforcing regulations.

STOA Vice-Chair Ivars Ijabs closed the event by underlining the need for risk management while fostering development and innovation. He also pointed out that gaining public acceptance and trust in generative AI will require future‑proof regulation.

A web-stream recording of the event is available on our website.

Your opinion matters to us. To let us know what you think, get in touch via stoa@europarl.europa.eu and follow us on Twitter/X at @EP_ScienceTech.

Written by Pieter Baert (1st edition).

When businesses start operating across borders, they are faced with a new and unfamiliar corporate tax system in each EU Member State. As a result, businesses with cross-border activities have to spend time and resources on understanding and complying with complex local corporate tax rules. This represents a significant administrative burden, in particular for small companies.

To lower tax compliance costs, the European Commission tabled a proposal on 12 September 2023 to establish a head office tax system (HOT) for small businesses. Under HOT, micro-enterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) operating exclusively through permanent establishments would be able to continue to apply their national corporate tax rules – i.e. the rules they are already most familiar with – when they expand across borders. They would also be able to file a single tax return in the Member State of their head office, rather than separate tax returns in the different Member States. This would cut compliance costs and remove an important barrier to the cross-border expansion of small companies in the single market.

The proposal is subject to a special legislative procedure, requiring unanimous support in Council, following consultation of the European Parliament and the European Economic and Social Committee.

Versions

• November 2023: ‘HOT – A head office tax system for small companies‘ (1st edition)

HOT – Proposal for a Council directive establishing a head office tax system for micro, small and medium sized enterprisesCommittee responsible:Economic and Monetary Affairs (ECON)COM(2023)528
12.9.2023Rapporteur:Lídia Pereira (EPP, Portugal)2023/0320(CNS)Shadow rapporteurs:Aurore Lalucq (S&D, France)
Martin Hlaváček (Renew, Czechia)
Claude Gruffat (Greens/EFA, France)
Andżelika Anna Możdżanowska (ECR, Poland)Consultation procedure
(CNS) – Parliament adopts
a non-binding opinionNext steps expected: Publication of draft report

Written by Mario Damen.

Future relations between the EU and Ukraine will depend on much more than financial and military aid or complying with European legislation. They will involve developing a new security architecture for Europe, new relations with Russia and Belarus, the economic and social recovery of Ukraine, and a common vision – amongst both EU and Ukrainian citizens – of an enlarged European Union that people want to live in.

These topics were discussed at the online policy round table ‘EU‑Ukraine 2035, foresight beyond the war’ held on 16 November 2023. The round table was the closing event of a conversation between more than 50 experts, who from June 2022 to June 2023 discussed the future of the EU and Ukraine using foresight methodology and scenario building.

Presenting the project and its final report, Wolfgang Hiller, Director for Impact Assessment and Foresight at the European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), emphasised the importance of foresight in analysing the possible consequences of complex high-impact developments, such as the war in Ukraine.

Member of the European Parliament Michael Gahler (EPP, Germany), Rapporteur on Ukraine in the Committee on Foreign Affairs, highlighted that, in the first year following the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, Parliament adopted no less than 24 resolutions related to Ukraine. These called for financial and military support for Ukraine, the opening of accession negotiations and support for Ukraine’s recovery and reconstruction.

Moderator Mario Damen of EPRS underscored that the scenarios represent possible futures that can help policy makers in taking the right decisions today.

In the lively panel discussion, four of the experts gave their views on the future EU‑Ukraine relationship. Ruth Deyermond from King’s College London considered escalation of the war beyond Ukraine rather unlikely in view of weakened Russian conventional forces and the possibility of retaliation. However, she made a plea, supported by Michael Gahler and other panellists, that EU countries and the United Kingdom increase their efforts to cooperate on defence matters. Jana Juzová from the EUROPEUM Institute for European Policy in Prague was of the opinion that it is less likely today that whole groups of countries might achieve EU accession than it was in 2004, when the Visegrad countries (Poland, Czechia, Slovakia and Hungary) and six other central and southern European states joined the EU at the same time. The variety in development and policy approaches between the current candidate countries (those in the Western Balkans, as well as Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine) is much greater than in 2004. Nicolai von Ondarza from Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik in Berlin pointed to proposals made by a Franco‑German working group for EU reform in view of enlargement. He reasoned that an enlarged EU would inevitably require more flexible cooperation arrangements. Ievgen Kylymnyk from the United Nations Development Programme stated that decentralisation would be key to overcoming the many challenges Ukraine will face in its reconstruction and recovery, as highlighted in a report on scenarios for Ukraine up to 2040. Because the EU accession process can take a decade or more, Michael Gahler and the experts called to combine the high ambitions and expectations with honest and realistic communication in the candidate countries, to meet all the challenges ahead.

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Ievgen Kylymnyk Nicolai von Ondarza Jana Juzova Ruth Deyermond Mario Damen Michael Gahler EU-Ukraine 2035, Foresight beyond the war | EPRS policy roundtable

Written by Martina Prpic (1st edition).

On 12 July 2023, the Commission published its proposal for a revision of the Victims’ Rights Directive, the key EU legislation on the protection of the rights of victims of crime. The Commission estimates that 15 % of Europeans fall victim to a crime every year. Despite progress in recent years, victims still lack access to information, support and protection. Secondary victimisation during criminal proceedings is still common and victims’ access to compensation is not sufficiently supported. Vulnerable victims are especially lacking in sufficient specialised support. The Commission is proposing a set of amendments to strengthen the current rules and expand victims’ rights.

In Parliament, the file is being dealt with by the Committees on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) and on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM) under the joint committee procedure.

Versions

• November 2023: ‘Revision of the Victims’ Rights Directive‘ (1st edition)

Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2012/29/EU establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHACommittees responsible:Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) and
Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM)COM(2023) 424
12.7.2023.Rapporteur:María Soraya Rodríguez Ramos (Renew, Spain) and Javier Zarzalejos (EPP, Spain)2023/0250(COD)Shadow rapporteurs:Maria da Graça Carvalho (EPP, Portugal)
Maria Noichl (S&D, Germany)
Giuliano Pisapia (S&D, Italy)
Lucia Ďuriš Nicholsonová (Renew, Slovakia)
Saskia Bricmont (Greens, Belgium)
Kira Marie Peter-Hansen (Greens, Denmark)
Beata Kempa (ECR, Poland)
Konstantinos Arvanitis (The Left, Greece)
Eugenia Rodríguez Palop (The Left, Spain)Ordinary legislative
procedure (COD)
(Parliament and Council
on equal footing –
formerly ‘co-decision’)Next steps expected: Publication of draft report

Written by Clément Evroux (1st edition).

On 28 July 2023, the European Commission adopted a proposal to revise EU toy safety legislation with a new regulation and repealing Directive 2009/48/EC. The proposal pursues two main objectives: a) achieving a higher level of child protection, including from the most harmful substances; and b) reducing the number of non-compliant and unsafe toys on the EU market. In relation to the first objective, the proposal extends the definition of health to children’s psychological and mental health and to their wellbeing and cognitive development. It also extends the current ban on substances classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic for reproduction to include endocrine disruptors, as well as chemicals that are toxic to a specific organ or affect the immune, neurological or respiratory system. The proposal’s second objective provides for the creation of a digital product passport to facilitate traceability.

In the European Parliament, the file was referred to the Committee on Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO). The working party on technical harmonisation in the Council of the European Union, has begun its examination of the proposal.

Versions

• November 2023: ‘Toy safety regulation‘ (1st edition)

Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the safety of toys and repealing Directive 2009/48/ECCommittee responsible:Internal Market and Consumer Protection
(IMCO)COM(2023) 462
28.7.2023Rapporteur:Marion Walsmann (EPP, Germany)2023/0290(COD)Shadow rapporteurs:Brando Benifei (S&D, Italy)
Vlad-Maruis Botoş (Renew, Romania)
Katrin Langensiepen (Greens/EFA, Germany)
Beata Mazurek (ECR, Poland)
Alessandra Basso (ID, Italy)Ordinary legislative
procedure (COD)
(Parliament and Council
on equal footing –
formerly ‘co-decision’)Next steps expected: Adoption of the draft report

Written by Jaan Soone (1st edition).

In July 2023, the Commission tabled a package of proposals for the greening of freight transport. Among the three proposals is one on improving the use of rail infrastructure capacity. The proposed text includes changes to the rules on the planning and allocation of railway infrastructure capacity, currently covered by Directive 2012/34/EU and Regulation (EU) No 913/2010. The aim of the changes is to allow rail infrastructure capacity and traffic to be managed more efficiently, thereby improving the quality of services and optimising the use of the railway network, accommodating larger volumes of traffic and ensuring that the transport sector contributes to decarbonisation.

In Parliament, the file has been referred to the Committee on Transport and Tourism. The rapporteur, Tilly Metz (Greens/EFA, Luxembourg), has yet to publish her draft report.

Versions

• November 2023: ‘Improving use of rail infrastructure capacity‘ (1st edition)

Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the use of railway infrastructure capacity in the single European railway area, amending Directive 2012/34/EU and repealing Regulation (EU) No 913/2010Committee responsible:Transport and Tourism (TRAN)COM(2023) 443
11.7.2023Rapporteur:Tilly Metz (Greens/EFA, Luxembourg)2023/0271 (COD)Shadow rapporteurs:Marian-Jean Marinescu (EPP, Romania)
Bogusław Liberadzki (S&D, Poland)
Dominique Riquet (Renew Europe, France)
Dorien Rookmaker (ECR, The Netherlands)
Marco Campomenosi (ID, Italy)Ordinary legislative
procedure (COD)
(Parliament and Council
on equal footing –
formerly ‘co-decision’)Next steps expected: Publication of draft report

Written by António Vale and Jurgita Lekaviciute.

Globally, it has been estimated that four billion people are facing severe water scarcity. While the situation is not yet critical in Europe, water stress is already a serious issue and climate change is expected to make it worse in the future. What is the extent of the problem, and what solutions are available to avoid running out of water?

The European Union (EU) has been affected by episodes of severe drought over the past decade, particularly in 2022. Measures of water stress show it affects 20 % of European territory and 30 % of the European population yearly on average. A closer look at its geographical distribution sees southern Europe as a hotspot, but also shows important pressure on river basins in western and central Europe.

The overall trend in the EU is positive, withdrawals of water having fallen by 15 % between 2000 and 2019. Three quarters of water extraction comes from surface waters, the remainder from groundwater. When it comes to drinking water, however, a full 65 % comes from underground sources. With slow natural processes of aquifer recharge and high sensitivity to pollution, the latter are a particularly vulnerable source. Some 29 % of total groundwater body area in the EU is of poor quantitative or chemical status. Satellite measurements also paint a general picture of depleting groundwater levels in some areas. Agriculture accounts for about 30 % of the water extracted, mostly concentrated in a few Member States. Cooling of thermal power plants accounts for a similar share: municipal water supply for about one quarter, other industry and services for the remainder. This picture is complicated by the fact that much of the water extracted is eventually returned to the environment, although often with added impurities or pollutants, and for some uses the difference between extraction and consumption can be very large. Finally, there are also non-productive losses, such as leaks in the drinking water distribution network that reach 40 % or higher in some EU Member States.

Climate change is set to worsen these trends, its impact showing a north-south divide. Models predict that temperatures will increase across the board but, while drought frequency is expected to increase, northern Europe is predicted to see higher rainfall, although with more extreme precipitation. One final important impact is changes to river flows, which will see a decrease in summer flows in most of Europe.

Potential impacts and developments

It is clear that urgent action is required, with solutions coupling an increase in availability of good quality water with a decrease in consumption. Geography will be a central factor in deploying solutions, in terms not only of the current situation and its expected evolution, but also of the level of the local water cycle.

With the most obvious sources already tapped, options to increase supply look to the sea and the atmosphere. Desalination is a relatively old idea that comes with significant drawbacks in energy use and the environmental impact of brine waste. New technological developments may help make it more appealing, but for the moment, it mostly remains a solution for when there is no alternative. Atmospheric water generation technology is another field traditionally held back by high-energy requirements. While recently seeing much progress, with some promising solutions using little or no energy, it is however unlikely to have significant quantitative impact soon. A few other outside the box ideas have also been proposed, from cloud seeding to iceberg harvesting.

Given the difficulty in increasing supply, addressing the issue will necessarily involve recycling and reusing water, as well as reducing consumption. Part of the solution may involve better reuse of wastewater, as is already the case in Singapore, for example. Water storage will grow in importance, as climate change brings higher seasonal variation and more frequent extreme events. Managed aquifer recharge may not only help with this, it could also help address unsustainable groundwater extraction. Preventing leaks in the distribution network and reducing evaporation in reservoirs could also minimise losses. Better use could be made of rainwater, at both urban and domestic levels. in general, cities could adapt more effectively by means of practices such as water sensitive urban design. At domestic level, in addition to water reuse systems, smart meters and other digital tools can help with water conservation.

As one of the major users of water, agriculture will play a large role: solutions may include adapting crop types to changing water availability, or developing new strains that are more resistant to dry conditions. More efficient irrigation mechanisms and better reuse of wastewater for irrigation may also help to conserve water. The case of the other major user, the electricity sector, is more complex: a context of severe water scarcity may bring a shift to closed cooling systems in thermal power plants; these require less water but lead to higher water consumption. The overall situation, however, is set to change as wind and solar power, which require little water for operation, become more prevalent. Elsewhere in industry, the solution may involve recycling water, an idea currently being explored by the chip manufacturing industry. Although it is difficult to determine water’s true value, market mechanisms may help conserve water via price signals. However, water is a basic necessity, and reflecting this in its cost is fraught with difficulty.

Nevertheless, a large part of the solution may lie in going back to nature. Grey or hard infrastructure has so far dominated water resource management, but the focus is now shifting to nature-based solutions (NBS). Such NBS for water management involve the use of ecosystem services to improve water quantity and quality and increase resilience to climate change. Ecosystems regulate water supply, moderate water quality and mitigate extreme climate events. For example, NBS can help maintain water supplies by increasing the infiltration and storage capacity of wetlands and soils and recharging aquifers. They can also mitigate droughts by releasing water from natural storage features and extend the life of reservoirs by reducing siltation. To regulate water quality, NBS can help treat polluted water, protect groundwater from contamination by removing sediments and pollutants, and improve wastewater quality. To mitigate extreme climate events, NBS can help increase water storage capacity in watersheds and urban areas, thereby reducing downstream flooding, slowing the flow of floodwaters, and reducing crop vulnerability to drought. Despite its growing use, direct investment in NBS still represents less than 1 % of total investment in water resource infrastructure and management worldwide.

Anticipatory policymaking

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the key European tool to tackle water stress and ensure sustainable water use, together with a series of other water laws. However, implementation is slow and integration of environmental objectives into sectoral policies is insufficient – as water use is transversal to many sectors, other legislation also has a relevant impact. Here, the EU common agricultural policy (CAP) plays a particularly important role. A recent European Court of Auditors report found inconsistent alignment of the CAP with water policy, with many exemptions granted for agricultural water use. It recommends better justifying such exemptions, linking CAP payments to sustainable water use and ensuring EU-funded projects help achieve WFD objectives. The Green Deal also has important ramifications: promoting wind and solar power leads to reduced water use in the energy sector; it may also be key in promoting the adoption of NBS. In addition, water policy would need to account for the geographical diversity of challenges, as well as the asymmetric impacts and increased seasonality brought by climate change.

Research and innovation will continue to play an important role in finding innovative solutions, and will help with the shift from a ‘silo’ approach to a collaborative one (an example is the launch of a new knowledge and innovation community on water). There are also initiatives from the European Parliament and the European Economic and Social Committee, calling for an ‘EU Blue Deal’ within the European Commission’s next mandate.

Finally, it is important to give water an appropriate economic value, and value it as an asset that generates functions and services for human wellbeing. Discussions on water economics have just begun, including through initiatives such as the Global Commission on the Economics of Water.

Read this ‘at a glance’ on ‘What if Europe ran out of water?‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.

Listen to podcast ‘What if Europe ran out of water?‘ on YouTube.

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Written by Sebastian Clapp and Clément Evroux.

Space is becoming an increasingly contested domain. The Russian war of aggression in Ukraine highlights the key role of space-based connectivity for the conduct of military operations and the continuity of public services. The Strategic Compass for Security and Defence underlines the increasingly contested nature of space, recognises space as a strategic domain and accentuates the need to boost the security and defence dimensions of the EU in space. EU Member States have therefore committed to adopt an EU space strategy for security and defence; this was put forward by the Commission on 10 March 2023.

Recognition by the EU and its Member States of the importance of space and defence has led to an increase in the development and use of space assets for defence and security objectives over the past decade. Space and defence capability development is advancing, with several European Defence Fund and permanent structured cooperation (PESCO) projects developing the capabilities that the EU will need in the space and defence sphere. Synergies are being sought between the civil, defence and space industries. The EU is also increasingly involved in global governance on space issues, working to enhance its partnerships on space security, for instance with the United States and with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

The European Parliament’s Committee on Foreign Affairs has adopted an own-initiative report on the Strategic Compass and EU space-based defence capabilities, in which it welcomes ‘the findings and high level of ambition in the recommendations proposed in the EU space strategy in the area of security and defence’. The Council has meanwhile adopted conclusions on the EU space strategy for security and defence, welcoming it and supporting its main points.

Read the complete briefing on ‘EU space strategy for security and defence‘ in the Think Tank pages of the European Parliament.