Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik / Briefing Paper

Over the last decade, only a single projection of foreign direct investment (FDI) flows by the United Nations influential “World Investment Report” has proposed a negative outlook in the medium term. Based partly on surveys of business executives, these forecasts reflect ex¬pecta¬tions of investment growth which, however, have repeated¬ly failed to materialise. In fact, FDI flows to develop¬ing countries have remained stagnant over the past decade.
Such wishful thinking is nurtured by a long series of positive narratives and facts about foreign investment. FDI has been one of the pillars of international development efforts for over 70 years. Its promise has not been limited to critical finance, but extends to longer term competitiveness through access to better technology, managerial know-how and, above all, prosperity through more and better paid jobs in the formal sector. From the old prescriptions of the so-called Washington Consensus to the hopeful Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the dominant development narrative has therefore favoured a rather indiscriminate pursuit of investment volume.
This brief calls for rethinking of narratives and policies that help to improve the impact of FDI, based on secular trends that challenge our expectations. Four such trends stand out:
First, while other sources of finance for development have grown considerably over the last decades, foreign invest¬ment has not followed the trend. Second, the kind of investment that is associated with stronger gains and longer term commitment in host economies – greenfield FDI – has also been in consistent decline as a share of total invest¬ment, while mergers and acquisitions and project finance have gained in importance. Third, the top 100 multinational enterprises (MNEs), accounting for nearly a quarter of global FDI stock, rely less on employment today than they used to in order to grow their foreign presence. Job creation, knowledge transfer and spillovers are therefore less likely to materialise through the presence of mega-firms and their corresponding investment at scale. Fourth, the growth of Chinese outward FDI within a strategic expan¬sionary political agenda stands to change rules and attitudes towards foreign investment moving forwards.
We argue that, collectively, these trends invite a renewed conversation around the kind of foreign investment we want and expectations of this source of finance for develop¬ment. These facts obscure neither the broad benefits of FDI to developing countries, nor the value proposition of FDI attraction. Rather, they raise questions about expectations, priorities and the alignment of investment policy with the realities experienced across develop¬ing countries.
To that end, we propose four priorities that stand to make a difference in the current context. We call for policy-makers to:
1) Place additional emphasis on retention of investment and linkages with the domestic economy.
2) Try new approaches for FDI attraction that focus on improving domestic investment facilitation frameworks.
3) Be selective as to investment sources and activities in order to mitigate political risks and align inward investment better with sustainable development.
4) Add evidence to improve our understanding of invest¬ment and inform decision-making.
Overall, it is critical to engage in a serious multi-stakeholder conversation around expectations, actors and solutions that respond to the investment reality of today.

Over the last decade, only a single projection of foreign direct investment (FDI) flows by the United Nations influential “World Investment Report” has proposed a negative outlook in the medium term. Based partly on surveys of business executives, these forecasts reflect ex¬pecta¬tions of investment growth which, however, have repeated¬ly failed to materialise. In fact, FDI flows to develop¬ing countries have remained stagnant over the past decade.
Such wishful thinking is nurtured by a long series of positive narratives and facts about foreign investment. FDI has been one of the pillars of international development efforts for over 70 years. Its promise has not been limited to critical finance, but extends to longer term competitiveness through access to better technology, managerial know-how and, above all, prosperity through more and better paid jobs in the formal sector. From the old prescriptions of the so-called Washington Consensus to the hopeful Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the dominant development narrative has therefore favoured a rather indiscriminate pursuit of investment volume.
This brief calls for rethinking of narratives and policies that help to improve the impact of FDI, based on secular trends that challenge our expectations. Four such trends stand out:
First, while other sources of finance for development have grown considerably over the last decades, foreign invest¬ment has not followed the trend. Second, the kind of investment that is associated with stronger gains and longer term commitment in host economies – greenfield FDI – has also been in consistent decline as a share of total invest¬ment, while mergers and acquisitions and project finance have gained in importance. Third, the top 100 multinational enterprises (MNEs), accounting for nearly a quarter of global FDI stock, rely less on employment today than they used to in order to grow their foreign presence. Job creation, knowledge transfer and spillovers are therefore less likely to materialise through the presence of mega-firms and their corresponding investment at scale. Fourth, the growth of Chinese outward FDI within a strategic expan¬sionary political agenda stands to change rules and attitudes towards foreign investment moving forwards.
We argue that, collectively, these trends invite a renewed conversation around the kind of foreign investment we want and expectations of this source of finance for develop¬ment. These facts obscure neither the broad benefits of FDI to developing countries, nor the value proposition of FDI attraction. Rather, they raise questions about expectations, priorities and the alignment of investment policy with the realities experienced across develop¬ing countries.
To that end, we propose four priorities that stand to make a difference in the current context. We call for policy-makers to:
1) Place additional emphasis on retention of investment and linkages with the domestic economy.
2) Try new approaches for FDI attraction that focus on improving domestic investment facilitation frameworks.
3) Be selective as to investment sources and activities in order to mitigate political risks and align inward investment better with sustainable development.
4) Add evidence to improve our understanding of invest¬ment and inform decision-making.
Overall, it is critical to engage in a serious multi-stakeholder conversation around expectations, actors and solutions that respond to the investment reality of today.

The EU postulates global climate action leadership in the European Green Deal. This Policy Brief takes the findings of the latest IPCC report as a starting point to discuss the implications for the EU's role in the global governance of climate change with a particular focus on Loss and Damage policy and financing. It argues that the pertinent Glasgow Dialogue series provides the EU with an opportunity to demonstrate leadership by supporting the design of enhanced integrated approaches to climate risk governance and finance that better address Loss and Damage, and by putting adaptation and Loss and Damage on top of the COP27 agenda in Sharm El-Sheik, Egypt, in November 2022.

The EU postulates global climate action leadership in the European Green Deal. This Policy Brief takes the findings of the latest IPCC report as a starting point to discuss the implications for the EU's role in the global governance of climate change with a particular focus on Loss and Damage policy and financing. It argues that the pertinent Glasgow Dialogue series provides the EU with an opportunity to demonstrate leadership by supporting the design of enhanced integrated approaches to climate risk governance and finance that better address Loss and Damage, and by putting adaptation and Loss and Damage on top of the COP27 agenda in Sharm El-Sheik, Egypt, in November 2022.

Bonn, 13. Juni 2022. Anfang dieses Monats trafen sich die Staats- und Regierungschefs der Welt in Stockholm, um den 50. Jahrestag der Konferenz der Vereinten Nationen über die menschliche Umwelt zu begehen. Die Konferenz betonte die Umweltdimension nachhaltiger Entwicklung und beschloss, die Welt auf den Weg zu einem gesunden Planeten und Wohlstand für alle zu bringen - trotz zahlreicher globaler Krisen und einer beispiellosen ökologischen Verschlechterung. Inger Andersen, Generalsekretärin der Stockholm+50-Konferenz und Exekutivdirektorin des UN-Umweltprogramms, forderte „einen neuen Kompass für das Wohlergehen“, um das Verständnis der Menschheit von Fortschritt und Wohlstand zu überdenken.

Dieses Postulat ist weniger utopisch, als es auf den ersten Blick scheint. Der jüngste Bericht des Zwischenstaatlichen Ausschusses für Klimaänderungen (IPCC) hat überzeugende Beweise dafür vorgelegt, dass Wohlstand und Wohlergehen auch mit einem erheblich reduzierten Ressourcenverbrauch möglich sind. Nachfrageseitige Maßnahmen verdienen dabei besondere Aufmerksamkeit – auch in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen. Der IPCC ermittelt ein Treibhausgasminderungspotenzial von 40-70% für Maßnahmen auf der Endverbraucherseite (z. B. energieeffiziente Geräte, Gebäude) sowie zahlreiche Vorteile für verschiedene Ziele der nachhaltigen Entwicklung (SDGs). Beispiele hierfür sind eine längere Lebenserwartung und eine bessere Gesundheit aufgrund geringerer Luftverschmutzung, aktivere Mobilitätsentscheidungen und der Zugang zu sauberer Energie. Um diese Vorteile zu nutzen und sie mit dem Ziel des Wohlergehens für alle in Einklang zu bringen, ist eine systematischere Verknüpfung von Strategien und Programmen für nachhaltigen Konsum und nachhaltige Produktion (SCP) erforderlich.

Es ist eine politische Herausforderung, zu einem angemessenen Verständnis von Wohlbefinden zu gelangen, insbesondere in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen. Bislang bietet die Messung der mehrdimensionalen Armut die fortschrittlichste Orientierung. Ihre Anwendung auf die SCP bedeutet, dass wir feststellen müssen, welche Produkte und Dienstleistungen wir wirklich brauchen, um ein gesundes, menschenwürdiges Leben zu führen, ohne uns um die Grundbedürfnisse zu kümmern. Länder auf allen Entwicklungsebenen müssen dies mit Blick auf die Gerechtigkeit sowohl innerhalb der Gesellschaft als auch zwischen den Ländern herausfinden.

Nachhaltiger Konsum wird in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen bereits praktiziert, z.B. beim Energiesparen, bei der gemeinsamen Mobilität, bei dezentralen digitalen Märkten, bei Reparatur- und Recyclingdiensten oder bei innovativen Start-ups zur Wiederverwendung von Plastik. Diese Praktiken werden jedoch häufig in informellen und marginalisierten Umgebungen mit Armut, prekären Arbeitsbedingungen und Umweltgefahren umgesetzt. Die Herausforderung besteht darin, solche Praktiken auszuweiten und sie mit den wirtschaftlichen Bestrebungen und Präferenzen der Verbrauche*innen einer wachsenden, urbanisierten Mittelschicht in Einklang zu bringen. Dann kann ein positiver Kreislauf in Gang gesetzt werden, in dem sich SCP und Entwicklung gegenseitig verstärken, indem sie durch tragfähige Unternehmensinnovationen, menschenwürdige Arbeit und verbesserte Gesundheit wirtschaftliche Vorteile schaffen.

Vier Faktoren, die einen solchen positiven Kreislauf begünstigen, sind bereits gut bekannt:

Erstens der strategische Aufbau von Infrastrukturen und lebenszyklusorientierten Produktdesigns, die nachhaltige Entscheidungen ermöglichen, z. B. bei Verkehrssystemen, Gebäuden und Nutzungen. Zweitens: Integrierte Ansätze, die auf lokale und regionale Märkte abzielen, um lokale Konsummuster (z. B. von Modelabels und Lebensmittelprogrammen) mit Produktionsprozessen und Wertschöpfungsketten zu verbinden. Drittens: Aufwertung bestehender nachhaltiger Praktiken und entsprechende Innovationen in der informellen Wirtschaft, z. B. Reparatur- und Wiederverwendungsinitiativen. Viertens: Förderung von Normen des Wohlbefindens gegenüber Normen der Konsummaximierung und der Bequemlichkeit. In vielen Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen sind solche Normen noch in der Entwicklung begriffen, und die Vorteile nachhaltiger Entscheidungen lassen sich angesichts der sichtbareren externen Umweltauswirkungen leicht nachweisen.

Einzelne Verbraucher*innen oder Unternehmen werden nicht in der Lage sein, diese Veränderungen systematisch allein zu erreichen. Es bedarf entsprechender politischer Maßnahmen, um die Rahmenbedingungen für Konsum und Produktion zu ändern und damit die Strukturen jenseits der individuellen Verantwortung für den Konsum von Waren und Dienstleistungen anzupassen.

Die Ergebnisse des Stockholmer+50-Gipfels bieten nun einen universellen Bezugspunkt. So wie der historische Vorgängergipfel von 1972 die Grundlage für das internationale Umweltrecht bildete, kann der Gipfel den Ton für eine normative Neuausrichtung auf das menschliche Wohlergehen und die Gesundheit des Planeten angeben. Dieser Rahmen muss auf allen Ebenen der Gesellschaft mit Leben gefüllt werden. Es sind differenzierte politische Ansätze erforderlich, um das Wohlergehen der verschiedenen Gesellschaftsschichten zu fördern.

Während arme ländliche Haushalte ihren Konsum möglicherweise noch steigern müssen, um beispielsweise die Unterernährung zu überwinden, braucht die wachsende städtische Mittelschicht Anleitung und Anreize, um sich auf nachhaltigen Konsum und kohlenstoffarme Alternativen umzustellen. Kontextspezifische Forschung zu den Rahmenbedingungen für SCP und praktische internationale Zusammenarbeit können gemeinsam sowohl die Kalibrierung als auch die Anwendung eines globalen Kompasses für das Wohlergehen unterstützen. Dies wird die Macht und das Potenzial von nachfrageorientierten Lösungen erschließen.

Bonn, 13. Juni 2022. Anfang dieses Monats trafen sich die Staats- und Regierungschefs der Welt in Stockholm, um den 50. Jahrestag der Konferenz der Vereinten Nationen über die menschliche Umwelt zu begehen. Die Konferenz betonte die Umweltdimension nachhaltiger Entwicklung und beschloss, die Welt auf den Weg zu einem gesunden Planeten und Wohlstand für alle zu bringen - trotz zahlreicher globaler Krisen und einer beispiellosen ökologischen Verschlechterung. Inger Andersen, Generalsekretärin der Stockholm+50-Konferenz und Exekutivdirektorin des UN-Umweltprogramms, forderte „einen neuen Kompass für das Wohlergehen“, um das Verständnis der Menschheit von Fortschritt und Wohlstand zu überdenken.

Dieses Postulat ist weniger utopisch, als es auf den ersten Blick scheint. Der jüngste Bericht des Zwischenstaatlichen Ausschusses für Klimaänderungen (IPCC) hat überzeugende Beweise dafür vorgelegt, dass Wohlstand und Wohlergehen auch mit einem erheblich reduzierten Ressourcenverbrauch möglich sind. Nachfrageseitige Maßnahmen verdienen dabei besondere Aufmerksamkeit – auch in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen. Der IPCC ermittelt ein Treibhausgasminderungspotenzial von 40-70% für Maßnahmen auf der Endverbraucherseite (z. B. energieeffiziente Geräte, Gebäude) sowie zahlreiche Vorteile für verschiedene Ziele der nachhaltigen Entwicklung (SDGs). Beispiele hierfür sind eine längere Lebenserwartung und eine bessere Gesundheit aufgrund geringerer Luftverschmutzung, aktivere Mobilitätsentscheidungen und der Zugang zu sauberer Energie. Um diese Vorteile zu nutzen und sie mit dem Ziel des Wohlergehens für alle in Einklang zu bringen, ist eine systematischere Verknüpfung von Strategien und Programmen für nachhaltigen Konsum und nachhaltige Produktion (SCP) erforderlich.

Es ist eine politische Herausforderung, zu einem angemessenen Verständnis von Wohlbefinden zu gelangen, insbesondere in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen. Bislang bietet die Messung der mehrdimensionalen Armut die fortschrittlichste Orientierung. Ihre Anwendung auf die SCP bedeutet, dass wir feststellen müssen, welche Produkte und Dienstleistungen wir wirklich brauchen, um ein gesundes, menschenwürdiges Leben zu führen, ohne uns um die Grundbedürfnisse zu kümmern. Länder auf allen Entwicklungsebenen müssen dies mit Blick auf die Gerechtigkeit sowohl innerhalb der Gesellschaft als auch zwischen den Ländern herausfinden.

Nachhaltiger Konsum wird in Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen bereits praktiziert, z.B. beim Energiesparen, bei der gemeinsamen Mobilität, bei dezentralen digitalen Märkten, bei Reparatur- und Recyclingdiensten oder bei innovativen Start-ups zur Wiederverwendung von Plastik. Diese Praktiken werden jedoch häufig in informellen und marginalisierten Umgebungen mit Armut, prekären Arbeitsbedingungen und Umweltgefahren umgesetzt. Die Herausforderung besteht darin, solche Praktiken auszuweiten und sie mit den wirtschaftlichen Bestrebungen und Präferenzen der Verbrauche*innen einer wachsenden, urbanisierten Mittelschicht in Einklang zu bringen. Dann kann ein positiver Kreislauf in Gang gesetzt werden, in dem sich SCP und Entwicklung gegenseitig verstärken, indem sie durch tragfähige Unternehmensinnovationen, menschenwürdige Arbeit und verbesserte Gesundheit wirtschaftliche Vorteile schaffen.

Vier Faktoren, die einen solchen positiven Kreislauf begünstigen, sind bereits gut bekannt:

Erstens der strategische Aufbau von Infrastrukturen und lebenszyklusorientierten Produktdesigns, die nachhaltige Entscheidungen ermöglichen, z. B. bei Verkehrssystemen, Gebäuden und Nutzungen. Zweitens: Integrierte Ansätze, die auf lokale und regionale Märkte abzielen, um lokale Konsummuster (z. B. von Modelabels und Lebensmittelprogrammen) mit Produktionsprozessen und Wertschöpfungsketten zu verbinden. Drittens: Aufwertung bestehender nachhaltiger Praktiken und entsprechende Innovationen in der informellen Wirtschaft, z. B. Reparatur- und Wiederverwendungsinitiativen. Viertens: Förderung von Normen des Wohlbefindens gegenüber Normen der Konsummaximierung und der Bequemlichkeit. In vielen Ländern mit niedrigem und mittlerem Einkommen sind solche Normen noch in der Entwicklung begriffen, und die Vorteile nachhaltiger Entscheidungen lassen sich angesichts der sichtbareren externen Umweltauswirkungen leicht nachweisen.

Einzelne Verbraucher*innen oder Unternehmen werden nicht in der Lage sein, diese Veränderungen systematisch allein zu erreichen. Es bedarf entsprechender politischer Maßnahmen, um die Rahmenbedingungen für Konsum und Produktion zu ändern und damit die Strukturen jenseits der individuellen Verantwortung für den Konsum von Waren und Dienstleistungen anzupassen.

Die Ergebnisse des Stockholmer+50-Gipfels bieten nun einen universellen Bezugspunkt. So wie der historische Vorgängergipfel von 1972 die Grundlage für das internationale Umweltrecht bildete, kann der Gipfel den Ton für eine normative Neuausrichtung auf das menschliche Wohlergehen und die Gesundheit des Planeten angeben. Dieser Rahmen muss auf allen Ebenen der Gesellschaft mit Leben gefüllt werden. Es sind differenzierte politische Ansätze erforderlich, um das Wohlergehen der verschiedenen Gesellschaftsschichten zu fördern.

Während arme ländliche Haushalte ihren Konsum möglicherweise noch steigern müssen, um beispielsweise die Unterernährung zu überwinden, braucht die wachsende städtische Mittelschicht Anleitung und Anreize, um sich auf nachhaltigen Konsum und kohlenstoffarme Alternativen umzustellen. Kontextspezifische Forschung zu den Rahmenbedingungen für SCP und praktische internationale Zusammenarbeit können gemeinsam sowohl die Kalibrierung als auch die Anwendung eines globalen Kompasses für das Wohlergehen unterstützen. Dies wird die Macht und das Potenzial von nachfrageorientierten Lösungen erschließen.

Cities account for approximately 70 per cent of global energy consumption and about 75 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions due to the density of economic activities and infrastructure and their often path-dependent development patterns. Cities adopting a green transformation process can minimise their environmental impact and maximise opportunities to improve and support the natural environment. Topics to address are energy efficiency and reduction of non-renewable energy sources to reduce their carbon footprint; actively support waste reduction and management; establish green and resilient infrastructure; encourage nature-based solutions; enhance the efficiency of new buildings; encourage low-carbon transport; and improve water cycle management. Also, these fields will lead to a greener urban economy, create more green jobs – or respectively change jobs towards becoming green – and deliver improved quality of life outcomes for residents.
The aim of this discussion paper is to address the challenges, opportunities and fields of actions – respectively interventions – of these economic, but also social transformations on the job market on the level of cities. The regional focus is on African and Asian cities in developing countries. A special focus is on intermediary cities with between 1 to 5 million inhabitants since they constitute the fastest-growing urban areas today and more importantly, they have both the capacity and expertise to guide an economic transformation while still being, at the same time, not too large to be managed effectively, as outlined above.
The fields of action for cities in a transformation towards a green economy, thereby creating green jobs, can be clustered into:
• land use planning
• green buildings and construction
• sustainable mobility and urban transport
• green and blue urban infrastructure services with nature-based solutions (NBSs) as a cross-cutting issue
• renewable energy and energy efficiency
The employment effects of a transformation towards a green economy play an important role. The opportunities for cities in Africa and Asia to create green jobs under their own local mandates of decision-making in urban planning and within their own service providers, and/or to support the “greening” of the private sector, will obviously create more green jobs, and respectively shift current jobs into green jobs.

Cities account for approximately 70 per cent of global energy consumption and about 75 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions due to the density of economic activities and infrastructure and their often path-dependent development patterns. Cities adopting a green transformation process can minimise their environmental impact and maximise opportunities to improve and support the natural environment. Topics to address are energy efficiency and reduction of non-renewable energy sources to reduce their carbon footprint; actively support waste reduction and management; establish green and resilient infrastructure; encourage nature-based solutions; enhance the efficiency of new buildings; encourage low-carbon transport; and improve water cycle management. Also, these fields will lead to a greener urban economy, create more green jobs – or respectively change jobs towards becoming green – and deliver improved quality of life outcomes for residents.
The aim of this discussion paper is to address the challenges, opportunities and fields of actions – respectively interventions – of these economic, but also social transformations on the job market on the level of cities. The regional focus is on African and Asian cities in developing countries. A special focus is on intermediary cities with between 1 to 5 million inhabitants since they constitute the fastest-growing urban areas today and more importantly, they have both the capacity and expertise to guide an economic transformation while still being, at the same time, not too large to be managed effectively, as outlined above.
The fields of action for cities in a transformation towards a green economy, thereby creating green jobs, can be clustered into:
• land use planning
• green buildings and construction
• sustainable mobility and urban transport
• green and blue urban infrastructure services with nature-based solutions (NBSs) as a cross-cutting issue
• renewable energy and energy efficiency
The employment effects of a transformation towards a green economy play an important role. The opportunities for cities in Africa and Asia to create green jobs under their own local mandates of decision-making in urban planning and within their own service providers, and/or to support the “greening” of the private sector, will obviously create more green jobs, and respectively shift current jobs into green jobs.

Rivalry between an increasingly assertive China and the United States is mounting in Asia and the Pacific. On several occasions, China has seen its interests threatened by the United States in the region. The US president’s recent visit to Japan and the so-called Quad summit between the US, Australia, Japan and India, which took place during his stay have driven the attention and interests of Beijing’s officials to make a trip to the Pacific Islands in order to negotiate and sign a security agreement with countries of the region. China’s officials see Joe Biden’s recent trip to Asia, as an effort to counter Beijing’s economic, political and diplomatic influence as well as the recognition of China over Taiwan in the region. Wang Yi’s visit to the Pacific Islands in late May for a ten-day tour in eight countries was meant to contribute to securing China’s political, economic and diplomatic stance in the region.

Rivalry between an increasingly assertive China and the United States is mounting in Asia and the Pacific. On several occasions, China has seen its interests threatened by the United States in the region. The US president’s recent visit to Japan and the so-called Quad summit between the US, Australia, Japan and India, which took place during his stay have driven the attention and interests of Beijing’s officials to make a trip to the Pacific Islands in order to negotiate and sign a security agreement with countries of the region. China’s officials see Joe Biden’s recent trip to Asia, as an effort to counter Beijing’s economic, political and diplomatic influence as well as the recognition of China over Taiwan in the region. Wang Yi’s visit to the Pacific Islands in late May for a ten-day tour in eight countries was meant to contribute to securing China’s political, economic and diplomatic stance in the region.

Gender diversity is important for achieving equality and ocean sustainability challenges. However, women are less likely to be in positions of leadership within academic interdisciplinary marine research institutions. We highlight the non-gendered and gendered challenges they experience as a leader that affect their role, mental wellbeing, success, and career progression. Accordingly, we present actionable strategies, systems, and processes that can be implemented by academic interdisciplinary marine research institutions and the scientific community to improve gender equality.

Gender diversity is important for achieving equality and ocean sustainability challenges. However, women are less likely to be in positions of leadership within academic interdisciplinary marine research institutions. We highlight the non-gendered and gendered challenges they experience as a leader that affect their role, mental wellbeing, success, and career progression. Accordingly, we present actionable strategies, systems, and processes that can be implemented by academic interdisciplinary marine research institutions and the scientific community to improve gender equality.

Social media misinformation is widely recognized as a significant and growing global problem. Yet, little is known about how misinformation spreads across broader media ecosystems, particularly in areas with varying internet access and connectivity. Drawing on research in northern Ghana, we seek to address this gap. We argue that ‘pavement media’—the everyday communication of current affairs through discussions in marketplaces, places of worship, bars, and the like and through a range of non-conversational and visual practices such as songs, sermons, and graffiti—is a key link in a broader media ecosystem. Vibrant pavement and traditional media allow for information from social media to quickly cross into offline spaces, creating a distinction not of the connected and disconnected but of first-hand and indirect social media users. This paper sets out how social, traditional, and pavement media form a complex and deeply gendered and socio-economically stratified media ecosystem and investigates its implications for how citizens differentially encounter, process, and respond to misinformation. Based on the findings, we argue that efforts intended to combat the spread of misinformation need to move beyond the Western-centred conception of what constitutes media and take different local modalities of media access and fact-checking into account.

Social media misinformation is widely recognized as a significant and growing global problem. Yet, little is known about how misinformation spreads across broader media ecosystems, particularly in areas with varying internet access and connectivity. Drawing on research in northern Ghana, we seek to address this gap. We argue that ‘pavement media’—the everyday communication of current affairs through discussions in marketplaces, places of worship, bars, and the like and through a range of non-conversational and visual practices such as songs, sermons, and graffiti—is a key link in a broader media ecosystem. Vibrant pavement and traditional media allow for information from social media to quickly cross into offline spaces, creating a distinction not of the connected and disconnected but of first-hand and indirect social media users. This paper sets out how social, traditional, and pavement media form a complex and deeply gendered and socio-economically stratified media ecosystem and investigates its implications for how citizens differentially encounter, process, and respond to misinformation. Based on the findings, we argue that efforts intended to combat the spread of misinformation need to move beyond the Western-centred conception of what constitutes media and take different local modalities of media access and fact-checking into account.

Autokratien sind weltweit auf dem Vormarsch. Um diesen Trend zu stoppen, müssen westliche Demokratien sowohl vor der eigenen Haustüre kehren als auch Demokratien in Entwicklungsländern fördern.

Autokratien sind weltweit auf dem Vormarsch. Um diesen Trend zu stoppen, müssen westliche Demokratien sowohl vor der eigenen Haustüre kehren als auch Demokratien in Entwicklungsländern fördern.

The world is witnessing a trend towards autocratic rule. The Russian invasion of Ukraine has made it even more important to stop this trend. Western democracies must do their best – at home and in support of democracies in developing countries.

The world is witnessing a trend towards autocratic rule. The Russian invasion of Ukraine has made it even more important to stop this trend. Western democracies must do their best – at home and in support of democracies in developing countries.

Since the previous version of this publication (September 2020), WTO negotiations on Investment Facilitation for Development have made steady progress. The number of participating members has increased to over 110, and the consolidated draft negotiation text has been updated to reflect progress made regarding a number of provisions. A number of investment facilitation measures that were highlighted in the first edition of this publication seem to have been included in the current WTO Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) Agreement draft text, or are under consideration by Members. Among the measures that indirectly contribute to development by increasing FDI inflows, the following seem to be included: maintain a list of support measures offered to inward investors, through online portals and notification to the WTO; enable the payment of fees and charges online; use new technology to facilitate investment, e.g., digital single window; grant permits or licences automatically if no government action is taken within statutory time limits: ‘silence is consent’; provide for risk-based approvals as part of authorisation procedures; track complaints through an investment grievance mechanism or ‘early warning system’ to identify and address issues early before they worsen; make it easy to secure work permits for skilled expatriates by making available e-visas or ‘green channels’; make publicly available lists of support measures for outward investors through online portals; and publish information on requirements and procedures for outward investment, if any, to assist interested parties. Furthermore, the ITC-DIE project called to facilitate not only more FDI, but also more sustainable FDI through the inclusion of facilitation measures aimed at directly increasing the development impact of FDI, to fully reflect the ‘for development’ purpose of the IFD Agreement. The first edition of this publication proposed the following direct investment facilitation measures that seem to have been included in the IFD Agreement draft text or are under consideration by negotiators: encourage foreign investors to incorporate internationally recognised principles, standards and guidelines of responsible business conduct; build and maintain a database of local enterprises to help investors identify potential subcontractors and local partners; and establish supplier-development programmes to increase the number and capacity of qualified local enterprises that can contract or partner with foreign affiliates. The project also emphasised the importance of providing technical assistance to developing countries and least developed country (LDC) Members to enhance their ability to facilitate FDI and, specifically, sustainable FDI. The current IFD Agreement draft text includes a section on the provision of technical assistance and capacity building for developing countries and LDC Members. In addition, the first edition of this publication included the recommendation to insulate the IFD Agreement from international investment agreements, and especially their dispute-settlement provisions, through appropriate treaty-interface clauses, to avoid the use of the IFD Agreement in investor-state dispute-settlement cases; the current IFD text contains an appropriate clause in this regard. This updated version synthesises what has been learned from numerous capacity-building workshops and consultations with stakeholders (governments, international organisations, investment promotion agencies (IPAs), the private sector, civil society, academia) conducted in the framework of the ITC-DIE project on Investment Facilitation for Development (parts of the project are co-organised with other organisations).

Globalisation has been linked to social disintegration and political backlash against trade. How does this happen? And if we can absorb globalisation shocks to society, what are relevant policies to do so? I propose a framework that links globalisation to social cohesion outcomes, identifying three channels through which cohesion is affected: workers, households, and firms.