It has become cliché to argue that Turkish-Iranian relations oscillate between a controlled rivalry and limited cooperation. However, in Iraq and Syria, rising tensions between Turkey and Turkey-affiliated groups on the one hand and Iran and Iran-backed groups on the other, have put the two countries on a collision course. Conflictual relations between Turkey and Iran have the potential to destabilise the Middle East and the South Caucasus, spawning additional security risks as well as waves of migration towards Europe. Such a situation could also complicate matters related to European energy security. Europe should remain alert and help to ease tensions through de-escalation mechanisms. In this regard, efforts to strengthen Iraqi sovereignty may serve as a pre-emptive measure.
Die im DIW Berlin angesiedelte forschungsbasierte Infrastruktureinrichtung Sozio-oekonomisches Panel (SOEP) sucht für das in Kooperation mit der Universität Bremen durchgeführte Zusammenhaltspanel zum nächstmöglichen Zeitpunkt eine studentische Hilfskraft (w/m/div) für 10 Wochenstunden.
Ihre Aufgabe ist die Mitwirkung bei der umfragemethodischen Erforschung der Daten des Zusammenhaltspanels, inklusive der Aufbereitung, Prüfung, Analyse und Visualisierung von längsschnittlichen und experimentellen Daten. Dabei sind Sie direkt in ein laufendes Datenerhebungsprojekt eingebunden, nehmen unterstützend an der Forschungstätigkeit im Projekt teil und lernen so den ganzen Prozess von der Datenerhebung bis zur Publikation von Forschungsergebnissen kennen.
Auf Einladung des tschechischen Ministerpräsidenten Petr Fiala, dessen Land aktuell den EU-Ratsvorsitz innehat, und des Präsidenten des Europäischen Rats, Charles Michel, versammelten sich in Prag 44 Staaten, um die Europäische Politische Gemeinschaft (EPG) zu gründen. Das größere Europa stellte sich auf der Prager Burg in vielen einzelnen Statements gegen Russland, das einen Angriffskrieg gegen die Ukraine führt und die Grundsätze der Helsinki-Schlussakte brutal verletzt. Freilich verlautbarten die Staats- und Regierungschefs diese Position nicht in einem gemeinsamen Kommuniqué oder einer EPG-Gründungsurkunde. Die Botschaft von Prag war das Treffen selbst: Kleine und große Länder von Island bis zum Südkaukasus diskutieren gleichberechtigt und freimütig über die Sicherheit, Stabilität und das Wohlergehen Europas. Es wird von der EU abhängen, ob sich die EPG über den gelungenen Auftakt in Prag hinaus zu einer relevanten Veranstaltung für Gesamteuropa entwickeln kann.
Selbst wer den Pitch des französischen Präsidenten Emmanuel Macron für eine EPG, eingebettet in seine Rede am 9. Mai 2022, für eine unausgegorene oder gar perfide Idee gehalten hatte, sah ein, dass der Vorschlag doch auf einiges Interesse bei den 17 Nicht-EU-Ländern stieß. Denn schnell war nicht mehr die Rede davon, eine neue Organisation unter EU-Führung zu schaffen. Befürchtungen, die EPG werde als Ersatz oder Alternative zur EU-Mitgliedschaft lanciert, sind fürs erste entkräftet. Ebenso die Sorge, dass die paneuropäischen Institutionen OSZE und Europarat durch die EPG dupliziert würden.
Serie von Gipfeltreffen in Zeiten geopolitischer UmbrücheDie EPG ist zunächst als bloße Serie von Gipfeltreffen konzipiert, als eine Plattform für den politischen Dialog zwischen europäischen Staats- und Regierungschefs in Zeiten geopolitischer Umbrüche. Es geht um intergouvernementalen Austausch, Koordination und Kooperation. Dementsprechend wurden in Prag auch keine Beschlüsse gefasst. Denn die Delegationen hätten vor und auf dem Gipfel viel Zeit und Energie darauf verwenden müssen, eine gemeinsame – gegebenenfalls recht dünne – Erklärung zu formulieren. Zudem ist offensichtlich, dass nicht alle 44 teilnehmenden Länder als Demokratien gelten können, in denen Menschenrechte und Rechtsstaatlichkeit gewährleistet sind. Jedoch hatte der tschechische Ministerpräsident Fiala als Gastgeber für das normative Framing der Auftaktveranstaltung gesorgt und in seiner Eröffnungsrede auf das Motto seines Landes zurückgegriffen: Pravda vítězí (Wahrheit wird obsiegen). Damit war der Ton gesetzt, vereint gegen Moskau und für die Unterstützung der Ukraine aufzutreten. Außer Russland war auch Belarus nicht eingeladen worden.
Im Eröffnungsplenum sprachen fünf Regierungschefs, die aus einem heutigen oder ehemaligen Mitgliedsland kommen (Tschechien und Großbritannien), zu den Beitrittsaspiranten zählen (Albanien und Ukraine) oder dem EWR und der EFTA angehören (Norwegen). Die Themen der Gesprächstische zu Frieden und Sicherheit sowie Klimawandel und Energie, Wirtschaft und Migration dürften recht gut die Agenda der nächsten EPG-Treffen umreißen, die abwechselnd in EU- und Nicht-EU-Ländern stattfinden sollen. Im Programm waren zudem freie Stunden reserviert, die in der Regie der Staats- und Regierungschefs lagen und für individuelle bilaterale Treffen und Gesprächsrunden genutzt wurden. So brachten die Präsidenten Macron und Michel die beiden Führer der verfeindeten Nachbarn Armenien und Aserbaidschan zusammen. Von solchen informellen Runden können diplomatische Impulse für Konfliktlösungen zwischen Staaten ausgehen, aber es können auch Streitigkeiten gesucht und akzentuiert werden. Die Tische für das Abendessen waren zwar nach Orchesterinstrumenten benannt, aber das Treffen in Prag war kein Konzert der Mächte, das die brennenden Fragen von Krieg und Frieden lösen wird.
EPG braucht EU als StützpfeilerTrotz des gelungenen Gründungstreffens blieb in Prag die Frage offen, was die EPG substanziell beitragen kann, um die Herausforderungen für Europa anzugehen. Die EPG kann nur in enger Verbindung mit der EU einen Mehrwert entfalten. Die EU ist – bei allen Defiziten – das politische und wirtschaftliche Gravitationszentrum im größeren Europa. Für Themen wie den Schutz kritischer Infrastruktur, Wiederaufbaufonds für die Ukraine oder Migration, die Macron auf seiner abschließenden Pressekonferenz hervorhob, ist die EU auch für Drittstaaten die erste Adresse, sobald es an die Umsetzung von Vorhaben geht. Nur sie verfügt über die administrative Infrastruktur und die Ressourcen, um eine sektorale Kooperation und Koordination nachhaltig voranzutreiben. So suchten viele Staats- und Regierungschefs aus Nicht-EU-Ländern das Gespräch mit EU-Kommissionspräsidentin Ursula von der Leyen, die sich in Prag wieselflink durch ihre Reihen bewegte. Die EU kann für die Vorbereitung und das Follow-up von auf EPG-Treffen platzierten Initiativen und Projekten ihre etablierten bi- und multilateralen Assoziierungs- und Kooperationsrahmen nutzen, die sie mit Drittstaaten in unterschiedlicher Qualität unterhält. Davon haben zehn Länder eine explizite Beitrittsperspektive. Auf den EPG-Gipfel folgte anderntags die informelle Zusammenkunft des Europäischen Rats mit ähnlicher Agenda. In zwei Wochen können die EU-Staats- und -Regierungschefs auf einer förmlichen Sitzung in Brüssel dazu verbindliche Beschlüsse fassen. Auch wegen dieser Akteursqualität ist die EU der Stützpfeiler der EPG.
Europa konzentrischer KreiseWas aus der EPG zwischen Gesprächsclub und Handlungsgemeinschaft werden und wie viel politisches Kapital die Mitglieder in das Experiment investieren sollen, ist unter den EU-Staaten und -Institutionen weiterhin umstritten. Die EPG kann, muss aber kein Schritt sein zu einem Europa konzentrischer Kreise, die sich als Räume abgestufter Kooperation und Integration um die EU herumgruppieren. Das würde von Brüssel den Erweiterungsdruck nehmen, wie es Macron und wohl auch andere in der EU gerne sehen würden. Das nächste EPG-Treffen soll 2023 in der moldawischen Hauptstadt Chişinău stattfinden. Wie dann wohl Europa aussehen wird?
In Germany, the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) leads in coordinating the government’s bilateral development policy priorities and positions. These are then operationalised and carried out in the form of distinct interventions by implementing agencies. The article engages with the different dimensions of cooperation and coordination of the German development finance landscape.
In Germany, the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) leads in coordinating the government’s bilateral development policy priorities and positions. These are then operationalised and carried out in the form of distinct interventions by implementing agencies. The article engages with the different dimensions of cooperation and coordination of the German development finance landscape.
In 2014, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauretania and Niger established a new regional organisation—the G5 Sahel (“le groupe de cinq pays du Sahel”). This chapter examines and explains the creation of the G5 Sahel. It also analyses the role the European Union and its member states played in promoting the establishment and evolution of the regional organisation. The analysis finds that a regional power vacuum, demands from the G5 Sahel member states, and vital support by the EU and its member states are key explanatory factors for the creation of the G5 Sahel.
In 2014, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauretania and Niger established a new regional organisation—the G5 Sahel (“le groupe de cinq pays du Sahel”). This chapter examines and explains the creation of the G5 Sahel. It also analyses the role the European Union and its member states played in promoting the establishment and evolution of the regional organisation. The analysis finds that a regional power vacuum, demands from the G5 Sahel member states, and vital support by the EU and its member states are key explanatory factors for the creation of the G5 Sahel.
The EU and the Mercosur trade bloc announced a free trade agreement in 2019, however the deal has yet to be ratified. Frederik Stender writes that with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine bringing the EU’s geostrategic partnerships back into focus, there is movement towards reviving the Mercosur agreement. Yet key obstacles remain, and it is unlikely there will be any breakthrough in the near future.
The EU and the Mercosur trade bloc announced a free trade agreement in 2019, however the deal has yet to be ratified. Frederik Stender writes that with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine bringing the EU’s geostrategic partnerships back into focus, there is movement towards reviving the Mercosur agreement. Yet key obstacles remain, and it is unlikely there will be any breakthrough in the near future.
Three interlinked crises of global dimension—climate change, biodiversity loss, and unsustainable food systems—put increasingly high pressures on land and people. Identified as the land use trilemma because they occur simultaneously and require integrated solutions, these major challenges must be addressed in rural areas. Approaches that focus on one of these crises in isolation insufficiently address the complexity of these challenges which have important social, ecologi-cal, and economic implications. Integrated solutions or multidimensional, multiple win–win strategies must be developed. The Global North increasingly recognises the need to take responsibility for the global ecological emergency that is emerging predominately as the result of its past and present actions (Hickel, 2020). Inhabitants of the Global North have begun to understand the consequences of their high living standards as an out-come linked to the economic growth paradigm now pursued in many parts of the world. While most countries in the Global South remain within their boundary fair shares, they have started to follow the Global North’s path, amplifying their con-tribution to the ecological crisis. Hence, transformation strategies in rural areas need to be elaborated and applied in all parts of the world. In this study, we explore agroecology as a holistic approach for agri-food sys-tem transformation and sustainable rural development. Our aim is to contribute to a better understanding of how the Global North can translate recognition of its responsibility as a key contributor to the climate crisis, biodiversity loss, and un-sustainable food systems globally into action locally. These local actions must be informed by greater awareness about positive and negative distance effects (tele-coupling) in the Global South and, more precisely, local requirements and oppor-tunities for the global co-creation of knowledge to foster the Global North’s ability to take action with and for the Global South. We anticipate a growing need for joint North–South learning and co-creation of knowledge to “think globally and act locally” in an interconnected world. While agroecology’s potential is increasingly recognised, its actual contribu-tions in the Global North and implication for rural development are not yet well understood. Firstly, important knowledge gaps and misunderstandings exist con-cerning the concept and its approach. This is particularly evident in the fact that a standard definition and certification system, as used in organic farming does not exist for products grown according to agroecological principles. Methodologies for assessing agroecological practices and measuring the reduction of negative local and distant effects in the Global South have not yet been put into practise.
Three interlinked crises of global dimension—climate change, biodiversity loss, and unsustainable food systems—put increasingly high pressures on land and people. Identified as the land use trilemma because they occur simultaneously and require integrated solutions, these major challenges must be addressed in rural areas. Approaches that focus on one of these crises in isolation insufficiently address the complexity of these challenges which have important social, ecologi-cal, and economic implications. Integrated solutions or multidimensional, multiple win–win strategies must be developed. The Global North increasingly recognises the need to take responsibility for the global ecological emergency that is emerging predominately as the result of its past and present actions (Hickel, 2020). Inhabitants of the Global North have begun to understand the consequences of their high living standards as an out-come linked to the economic growth paradigm now pursued in many parts of the world. While most countries in the Global South remain within their boundary fair shares, they have started to follow the Global North’s path, amplifying their con-tribution to the ecological crisis. Hence, transformation strategies in rural areas need to be elaborated and applied in all parts of the world. In this study, we explore agroecology as a holistic approach for agri-food sys-tem transformation and sustainable rural development. Our aim is to contribute to a better understanding of how the Global North can translate recognition of its responsibility as a key contributor to the climate crisis, biodiversity loss, and un-sustainable food systems globally into action locally. These local actions must be informed by greater awareness about positive and negative distance effects (tele-coupling) in the Global South and, more precisely, local requirements and oppor-tunities for the global co-creation of knowledge to foster the Global North’s ability to take action with and for the Global South. We anticipate a growing need for joint North–South learning and co-creation of knowledge to “think globally and act locally” in an interconnected world. While agroecology’s potential is increasingly recognised, its actual contribu-tions in the Global North and implication for rural development are not yet well understood. Firstly, important knowledge gaps and misunderstandings exist con-cerning the concept and its approach. This is particularly evident in the fact that a standard definition and certification system, as used in organic farming does not exist for products grown according to agroecological principles. Methodologies for assessing agroecological practices and measuring the reduction of negative local and distant effects in the Global South have not yet been put into practise.
Emmanuel Macron hat während seiner ersten Amtszeit (2017–2022) versucht, sich von altbekannten, weithin kritisierten Mustern französischer Afrikapolitik abzusetzen. Er diversifizierte die Beziehungen zu Afrika in regionaler und inhaltlicher Hinsicht, integrierte nicht-staatliche Akteure und pflegte einen vergleichsweise offenen Umgang mit Frankreichs problematischer Vergangenheit auf dem Kontinent. Das Narrativ des Wandels, das Paris vor allem über Kanäle der Public Diplomacy verbreitet hat, wurde jedoch von Pfadabhängigkeiten überlagert, sichtbar vor allem an der Fortsetzung des gescheiterten militärischen Engagements im Sahel und an einem politisch inkohärenten Auftreten gegenüber autoritären Regierungen. Ein Resultat war der unfreiwillige militärische Abzug aus Mali im August 2022, der eine historische Zäsur in den französisch-afrikanischen Beziehungen darstellt.
Under the current global environmental governance and trade regimes, several initiatives, such as the new United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, the European Union’s European Green Deal, and regional free trade agreements the European Union has implemented with strategic partners like Mexico, are prompting a vibrant discussion on how trade agreements can be used as a potential mechanism to create enforceable cross-border commitments to tackle climate change. However, to cut greenhouse gas emissions within a few decades, a decisive departure from current trends in emission and trade policies is required by all countries, both developed and developing. As a result, politicians, scholars and experts around the world have looked to trade agreements as a possible tool for reaching global climate commitments, either related to or independent from the Paris Agreement. But how well do these agreements suit this purpose? Carbon-intensive products worldwide increased when tariff reductions were implemented, resulting in destructive practices for many countries, particularly those in the Global South. For countries such as Mexico, the nexus between trade and climate change is not easy to address: the country is trapped between its ambitions to play a role in global trade platforms as an industrial manufacturer and agricultural exporter and its desire to be recognized as a global actor in climate change policy and actions within the global community. Despite recent changes in climate and environmental politics under the administration of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (2018–2024), Mexico is a middle-income country with a long-standing tradition as climate champion and environmental leader in the Global South and needs to make clear where it stands under the new global environmental and ecological transition scenario imposed by the climate crisis and trade-related issues. The “entanglement” of global trade treaties and commitments under the current climate crisis, represents a major shift for Mexico. Caught between the new US–Mexico-Canada Agreement, the EU–Mexico Trade Agreement and the possible impacts of the European Green Deal, Mexico needs to define its role in trade and environmental terms alongside giant partners such as the United States and the European Union, while defending its role as a regional power. If the European Green Deal takes off as an international driver for deepening climate and sustainable development goals with European Union strategic partners, it remains to be seen how Mexico will respond to the challenge. In this paper we address the possible implications for Mexico under each of these instruments. We look at the interplay between them, explore the linkages and possible conflictual pathways, and “disentangle” the schemes in which trade and climate change are interconnected. Mexico may be trapped in a “catch-22” situation. Environmental provisions embedded in trade treaties provide critical benefits to the country, but this often comes at the expense of “unacceptable” environmental enforcement measures that can put at risk national development plans, especially at a time when the environment and climate change issues are not at the top of the current administration’s political agenda.
Under the current global environmental governance and trade regimes, several initiatives, such as the new United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, the European Union’s European Green Deal, and regional free trade agreements the European Union has implemented with strategic partners like Mexico, are prompting a vibrant discussion on how trade agreements can be used as a potential mechanism to create enforceable cross-border commitments to tackle climate change. However, to cut greenhouse gas emissions within a few decades, a decisive departure from current trends in emission and trade policies is required by all countries, both developed and developing. As a result, politicians, scholars and experts around the world have looked to trade agreements as a possible tool for reaching global climate commitments, either related to or independent from the Paris Agreement. But how well do these agreements suit this purpose? Carbon-intensive products worldwide increased when tariff reductions were implemented, resulting in destructive practices for many countries, particularly those in the Global South. For countries such as Mexico, the nexus between trade and climate change is not easy to address: the country is trapped between its ambitions to play a role in global trade platforms as an industrial manufacturer and agricultural exporter and its desire to be recognized as a global actor in climate change policy and actions within the global community. Despite recent changes in climate and environmental politics under the administration of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (2018–2024), Mexico is a middle-income country with a long-standing tradition as climate champion and environmental leader in the Global South and needs to make clear where it stands under the new global environmental and ecological transition scenario imposed by the climate crisis and trade-related issues. The “entanglement” of global trade treaties and commitments under the current climate crisis, represents a major shift for Mexico. Caught between the new US–Mexico-Canada Agreement, the EU–Mexico Trade Agreement and the possible impacts of the European Green Deal, Mexico needs to define its role in trade and environmental terms alongside giant partners such as the United States and the European Union, while defending its role as a regional power. If the European Green Deal takes off as an international driver for deepening climate and sustainable development goals with European Union strategic partners, it remains to be seen how Mexico will respond to the challenge. In this paper we address the possible implications for Mexico under each of these instruments. We look at the interplay between them, explore the linkages and possible conflictual pathways, and “disentangle” the schemes in which trade and climate change are interconnected. Mexico may be trapped in a “catch-22” situation. Environmental provisions embedded in trade treaties provide critical benefits to the country, but this often comes at the expense of “unacceptable” environmental enforcement measures that can put at risk national development plans, especially at a time when the environment and climate change issues are not at the top of the current administration’s political agenda.