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Tribunes et propositions

Le Monde Diplomatique - lun, 06/03/2017 - 16:07

Tribunes, opinions

Vous souhaitez publier une tribune, une réaction à une actualité. Merci d'avoir pensé à nous pour vous exprimer, mais notre périodicité nous conduit à ne pas publier ce type de textes qui conviennent mieux aux quotidiens ou aux hebdomadaires.

Nous proposer un reportage, une enquête, une analyse

Le Monde diplomatique dispose d'un large réseau d'auteurs et de sa propre équipe de journalistes. Nous ne publions qu'exceptionnellement des articles provenant de propositions spontanées. Il ne peut s'agir que de textes originaux, inédits et non proposés à d'autres publications, ayant des références précises, vérifiables et une longueur adaptée à nos formats. Nous ne pouvons décider de donner suite à une proposition que sur la base d'un synopsis, pas seulement d'une idée. Les textes que nous publions font l'objet d'un travail d'édition approfondi, que l'auteur devra accepter et valider.

Sélectionnez ci-dessous la zone géographique ou le thème le plus pertinent.

Divide and Rule

German Foreign Policy (DE/FR/EN) - lun, 06/03/2017 - 00:00
(Own report) - With today's special summit of four heads of state, Berlin is preparing the EU's transformation in response to the Brexit. The German chancellor will meet in Versailles this afternoon with France's president and the prime ministers of Italy and Spain. Selected southern EU members have been included in alleged leadership meetings with the German chancellor to prevent a southern European bloc from emerging, which could possibly, in the future, put an end to German austerity dictates. With Great Britain's exit, the neo-liberal oriented EU countries are loosing the necessary quorum for a veto in EU bodies. Berlin could also encounter problems with the Eastern European "Visegrád Group," which does not want to support the emergence of a powerful integrated core around a German hub, because it would consolidate a two or even three-class EU. Reinforcement of the EU's anti-refugee border-management and particularly its resolute militarization are emerging as the common denominators for the Union's transformation.

The Politicization of the F-35 Program

Foreign Policy Blogs - dim, 05/03/2017 - 18:06

The plane that is destined to replace the various types of aircraft flown by NATO forces and its allies might have some problems. The F-35 vertical take-off capable stealth fighter/bomber has been targeted by U.S. politicians for various reasons.

The F-35 will be distributed in various versions to different countries, and in return many of these participating countries will have a role in the global production of the F-35—similar to the multi-national production of the Tornado fighter/bomber or Airbus aircraft in Europe. With the suggestion of using the F-18E or an updated version by President Trump and being put into full effect by the Canadian government, the F-35 program will become a lot messier, and therefore more costly to all countries involved.

Trump suggested to Boeing that an upgraded version of the F-18E should be cost out comparable to the F-35. Many see this as a bargaining tactic, by pressuring Lockheed to lower the price on the future F-35. While a high-tech upgrade with stealth capabilities is possible for the F-18E and even the F-15, it would still lack the capabilities of the next generation F-35 that most likely would need to be invented even with a stealthy F-18E or F-15. While President Trump wishes to make it clear that the U.S. might walk away from the F-35 despite the chaos it would cause, it is most likely a bargaining tactic than an actual plan by the new Administration.

It is possible however to have the new F-18E or F-15, as stealthy prototypes have been produced. But in the end, the technologies that will prevent U.S. pilots from being shot down by S-400 and S-500 missiles is based in future developments of the F-35 platform, leading possibly to a revised F-22 with lower costs and higher production numbers. If lowering the costs of the F-35 works, and this cost reduction is transferred to lowering the costs of future projects like a revised F-35 or F-22, it would be worth the pressure on Lockheed for the U.S. government.

The Canadian proposal to replace the F-35 was a political talking point for years before the current government came into power. The Trudeau eventually decided—without much time or consultation, or even a competition—to buy several F-18Es to supplement its forces while it still pays into the F-35 program. Many in Canada believe that the supplemental planes may be a stepping stone to replace the F-35 altogether.

But with fees still being paid into the F-35 program and no consideration for other candidates like the Dassault Rafale or Saab Gripen, it seems as if there is no constructive arguments for keeping both planes in Canada’s inventory. Several retired generals have also voiced their concerns. This call has fallen on deaf ears despite the fact that F-18Es less advanced than the F-35 and that Canada is opting for newer planes instead of de-commissioned ones that could be updated to save costs. In the end, Boeing has won another round against Dassault and Saab, despite the loss of Canadian jobs and possible loss of future pilots.

All in all, pilots and the people they are protecting are paramount, not the reputation of politicians making political decisions without regard to technical information or the lives of the men and women in uniform.

The post The Politicization of the F-35 Program appeared first on Foreign Policy Blogs.

Moving Towards a Peaceful Colombia

Foreign Policy Blogs - dim, 05/03/2017 - 16:48

FARC rebels at a demilitarization “settlement” in La Paz, Colombia in Feb. 2017. After reaching a historic peace treaty with the government, FARC members have agreed to surrender their weapons and finally bring a 50-year war to its end. (Federico Rios Escobar/NY Times)

For over 50 years, the government of Colombia engaged in a brutal, seemingly endless conflict with leftist guerrilla rebels. Last year, President Juan Manuel Santos reached a peace agreement with the leading rebel group, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Beginning in February 2017, scenes played out across the country that many thought they would never see: FARC members peacefully surrendering their weapons, and preparing to return to civilian life under the protection of the military that had been their mortal enemy for decades.

Of course what everyone in Colombia wants to know is, is this peace for real? Is this really the end of a seemingly endless struggle in which hundreds of thousands perished? Is Colombia moving into a new era of acceptance and reconciliation? While the outlook seems positive, the road will not be easy.

Rocky road to peace

The current resolution is not without controversy. The peace accord was driven by Santos, who received the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end the longstanding yet. Under the deal, FARC rebels would report to demobilization zones overseen by UN personnel. They would disarm and begin a transition/reintegration into Colombian society, monitored by the Colombian government. In return, rebels are to be granted full amnesty, though the government promises to launch a “transitional justice” system to address claims of crimes committed during the war.

Santos had compliance of FARC leaders and the best chance for peace in decades. Yet when Colombians voted on the peace accord in an October 2016 referendum, it was rejected. Many felt the deal was too lenient on the rebels, as the amnesty promise meant none of them would see jail time. As described by Helen Murphy of Reuters, “The accord has been heavily criticized by many.”

So what did Santos do? He circumvented the public’s decision, using the country’s Congress to force the agreement into law in November last year. In other words, the president decided “put the deal in front of voters—and then simply sidestep[ped] them when he did not like the outcome.” Not surprisingly, this angered many Colombians. The next presidential election in Colombia is in 2018, and if Santos is not re-elected the entire agreement may be in jeopardy.

FARC rebels complying

Nevertheless, the transition is moving forward. Around 7,000 FARC rebels have abandoned their remote jungle and mountain encampments and arrived at 26 demilitarization zones throughout the country within the last month. On February 20th, Santos announced that the rebels would begin to surrender their weapons, with UN-overseen disarmament expected to be completed by June.

As a symbol of remembering but moving on from the past, weapons will be melted down and shaped into war monuments. FARC also plans to transition into a leftist political party that could be included in the government it has so long opposed. Families separated for decades by the conflict are reuniting.

Second peace treaty in the works

Also in Feb. 2017, Santos began negotiations with a second prominent rebel group called the National Liberation Army (ELN). An agreement similar to the one reached with FARC is on the horizon, and ELN negotiators stated that the prospect of ending their decades-long conflict with the Colombian government “gives us hope.” However there is still work to be done—on February 20th Colombian authorities held ELN responsible for a bomb that exploded in Bogotá near a bullring, injuring dozens of police officers.

A better future

While the mechanics of the move toward peace have not been smooth, it seems that Colombia is moving closer to peace now than ever before. Whenever enemies become neighbors there will be hostility and uncertainty. But both sides seem to genuinely want the disarmament and reintegration to succeed. Generations of Colombians have only known war, and to see rebels turning in their weapons without opposition (mostly) is a truly incredible accomplishment. The Colombian government, FARC, and the UN now must make sure it sticks. There is too much at stake.

The transition may not be perfect, but there is no question it will lead to a better future for all Colombians. It really does seem that a new era has arrived.

The post Moving Towards a Peaceful Colombia appeared first on Foreign Policy Blogs.

The U.S. Should Get Rid of Its President(ial System)

Foreign Policy Blogs - dim, 05/03/2017 - 16:41

American Democracy at a Crossroads | Photo: Geoff Livingston

When John Yoo—a former Justice Department attorney known for writing legal memorandums on enhanced interrogation tactics—worries about executive overreach, you know things are truly getting serious. In a recent New York Times op-ed, Yoo argued that the Trump Administration was overstepping its bounds in pushing through several executive orders, among them the controversial immigration ban on seven Muslim-majority countries.

Yoo’s main claim to fame involves his authorship of the so-called torture memos during his tenure at the Justice Department. Unsurprisingly then, he has been a consistent advocate of the idea that the U.S. President has almost unlimited discretion over a vast array of policy issues. But even for Yoo, Donald Trump appears to be taking things too far.

Yet, when taking a step back, the Trump Administration’s conveyor belt of executive orders is but an extension of a general trend in American politics. Successive presidents have assumed greater and greater powers vis-à-vis Congress. In fact, that trend is one among many signs that the country’s governmental system is no longer adequate to actually govern effectively. The American presidential system no longer functions.

When it comes to political structure, the United States has always been something of an outlier. Most industrialized countries run parliamentary systems—think Westminster in the UK or the Bundestag in Germany. The crucial difference between parliamentary and presidential systems is the separation between the legislative and executive branches. In the former, these are interlocked to a certain degree, while in the latter, they constitute independent entities.

As political scientist Juan Linz laid out in his seminal 1990 paper, “The Perils of Presidentialism”, there are significant conceptual problems with presidential systems. Among these, the crucial aspect is political legitimacy. Linz explains that

“in a presidential system, the legislators, especially when they represent cohesive, disciplined parties that offer clear ideological and political alternatives, can also claim democratic legitimacy. This claim is thrown into high relief when a majority of the legislature represents a political option opposed to the one the president represents. Under such circumstances, who has the stronger claim to speak on behalf of the people: the president or the legislative majority that opposes his policies? Since both derive their power from the votes of the people in a free competition among well-defined alternatives, a conflict is always possible and at times may erupt dramatically.”

For the longest time, the U.S. has been able to escape these structural issues precisely because legislators have not represented cohesive and disciplined parties with clear ideological outlines. In fact, to the European eye, the two major American political parties hardly represented parties at all, but rather appeared as loose coalitions designed to capture voters. Yet, since the 1960s, the traditional underpinnings of the American party landscape have progressively eroded.

The civil rights era of the 1950s and 60s brought with it a process of ideological separation between Democrats and Republicans. In the U.S. Senate today, there is not a single Republican to the left of the most conservative Democrat. Due to the effects of gerrymandering and practically non-existent campaign finance restrictions, the effect has arguably been even more pronounced in the House. In addition, primaries ensure that politicians are often threatened most by ideological challengers from the left and right (but mostly the right) during election season.

The result is what we are currently seeing in American politics. The system was built precisely on the notion of checks and balances. Yet, these balances are what is producing the kind of gridlock and attrition that ultimately leads to a drift towards executive power. In the best of times, the same party controls both the White House and Congress. As we saw in 2009 with the passing of Obamacare, a lot of things can get done when that happens. But with two-year election cycles, the American norm is for divided government to predominate. It is no wonder, then, that paralysis takes hold in Washington. The product is a do-nothing legislature that attracts the ire of the electorate.

In this situation, the president will have an incentive to make policy by executive fiat in order to advance his (and someday her) agenda. But that is not a role that the White House has traditionally played. In any case, executive orders can only go so far. The Trump Administration has already rolled back a series of Obama era orders. If legislative stability is one of the hallmarks of a functioning democracy, this system is close to its antithesis.

In 2014, Francis Fukuyama wrote in Foreign Affairs that American politics is in decay. He explained that “political decay […] occurs when institutions fail to adapt to changing external circumstances, either out of intellectual rigidities or because of the power of incumbent elites to protect their positions and block change.” As a shorthand for the problems pestering the American political system, he coined the term vetocracy. In essence, there are too many choke points that nip legislative action in the bud. In addition to the split between Congress and the White House, there is the filibuster in the Senate. The states remain powerful, with their own (mostly bicameral) legislatures and state supreme courts. The archaic electoral college has meant that two out of the last three presidents actually lost the popular vote, while giving a handful of swing states massive electoral power.

The situation is not exactly helped by the fact that the U.S. tries to run a modern country on the basis of a 1789 constitution (albeit with a number of amendments). Here, massive conflicts are all but guaranteed. These occur perennially when constitutional originalists such as Clarence Thomas or the late Antonin Scalia—and indeed current Supreme Court nominee Neil Gorsuch—try to superimpose the original text of the constitution on contemporary political issues. It is hardly conceivable that the founders would have been able to foresee the nature of the current American political crisis. From their perspective, the fact that an overabundance of checks and balances would constitute the heart of the problem would have probably seemed outlandish.

But the United States is quickly finding out that its old revered institutions are coming apart at the seems precisely at a moment when long-held norms are also under threat. In fact, failing institutions and norm erosion might well be correlated.

Shortly before last year’s presidential election, Daron Acemoğlu wrote that American politics was in an iconoclastic phase, and that the “icons being targeted are the moral foundations of [American] democracy.” But another icon is the American system of government itself. If the U.S. constitution could be rewritten tomorrow, a set of 21st century founding fathers and mothers would be well advised to scrap the presidential system and put a parliamentary one in its stead. Of course, the structural problems dogging the United States would remain. Still, a more nimble and simple system would mean American government would no longer be part of the problem, but part of the solution.

The post The U.S. Should Get Rid of Its President(ial System) appeared first on Foreign Policy Blogs.

South Korea’s Strategic Importance Forgotten Amidst the Trump-Abe Honeymoon

Foreign Policy Blogs - dim, 05/03/2017 - 16:28

Secretary Tillerson, South Korean Foreign Minister Yun, and Japanese Foreign Minister Kishida, pose for a photo before their Trilateral Meeting in Bonn. (U.S. Department of State)

After vaunting his “bromance” with President Donald Trump through an extended 27-hole golf tour at Mar-a-Lago, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was reassured of the trump administration’s “100%” commitment to the U.S.-Japan alliance. The friendly remarks made in response to North Korea’s ballistic missile test (Feb. 12th) indicates that Mr. Abe’s quick-witted tributary diplomacy has paid off.

Despite the “very good” bilateral “chemistry” shown at the joint press conference, however, there was no mention of South Korea, even though the North Korean enigma ought to be resolved in the context of the trilateral alliance and multilateral negotiations (six-party talks).

The proactiveness of Mr. Abe’s Machiavellianism, which has quickly adapted to a new global order ahead of other U.S. allies in Asia, surely offers meaningful reflective lessons, especially for South Korea. While the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye paralyzed South Korea’s diplomatic control tower at the cost of strengthening democracy, Japan worked to strengthen Mr. Trump’s trust by successfully fulfilling a strategic transaction palatable to Mr. Trump’s realpolitik.

To keep up with this development, it is imperative that, in a concerted effort to defy the vacuum in political leadership, South Korean Acting President Hwang Kyo-ahn and legislative leaders reach a consensus in transmitting clear bipartisan messages to the Trump administration during its initial phase of formulating Asia-Pacific policies.

The Trump-Abe honeymoon signaled to the U.S.’ Asian allies that the Trump administration’s engagement strategy in the Asia-Pacific region (at least as concerns security issues) will not diverge much from the conventional foreign policy framework. However, recent developments have left the impression that Mr. Trump’s possible “rebalance of the Bush era’s extreme bilateralism” could eschew the de jure equality of, in particular, the current trilateral security cooperation in Northeast Asia, by establishing informal, de facto inequality between the bilateral alliances.

South Korean pundits have been apprehensive of such a worrisome prospect. The U.S. perception that Japan’s material capabilities are stronger than those of South Korea could bring about an informal hierarchy of alliances, under which the “U.S.-ROK” alliance is relegated to a subordinate position to the U.S.-Japan alliance.

For the U.S., containing China’s ascension to regional hegemony by supporting Japan’s increasingly hard-hedging tendencies against China could be conceived to be a cost-effective way of implementing the Ballistic Missile Defense System in Asia on behalf of its allies. This seems to be an inevitable choice, given that China is often held to deviate from its assumed responsibilities commensurable to its rising status.

Indeed, China’s ethno-centric vision for Asian integration, which aims to transform ASEAN into a polarized security community, is in many ways undesirable for its developing neighbors, for whom the U.S.’ maritime protection of trade routes (freedom of navigation) is crucial. In addition, China’s mimicry of U.S.’ “hub-and-spoke” strategy, which lacks a multilateral consensus, links trade too excessively to diplomatic disputes, and thereby stifles neighbors’ political autonomy.

Nevertheless, these circumstances do not necessarily entail that cooperation between the U.S. and China is infeasible. As the Secretary of State during the era of détente, Henry Kissinger, noted, “If the Trump administration, in the first year or so, can really engage with China strategically in a constructive and comprehensive way, President Trump and [Chinese] President Xi [Jinping] will find that the incentives for cooperation are much greater than for confrontation.”

Considering the fact that an escalation of tensions between the two superpowers is avoidable, as long as the leaders do not fall into the trap of heuristic decision-making, it is unwise to unilaterally rely on Japan-led hard-edging as the only possible strategy against China’s rise. Instead of unilaterally central-planning the regional order in Asia according to U.S.-Japan relations, the U.S. should recognize the strategic importance of other allies, thereby maintaining a variety of strategic options.

South Korea’s strategic choices contribute—although the country still lacks the major-power capacity to exert influence at the regional level—to defining the future orientation of the Korean peninsula and, in the long-run, maintaining the balance of power between the U.S. and China, in case the power competition between the two superpowers intensifies.

A recently released CFR discussion paper authored by renowned experts on Korea Scott A. Snyder and his associates insightfully and succinctly assess South Korea’s national interests and the constraints the country faces in striving to achieve its interests, and the strategic options that the country can exercise under the constrained circumstances.

The paper points out that the country has interests in defending itself from North Korea, minimizing fallouts from the power competition between the U.S., China, and other major powers, securing maritime trade routes, and reunifying the Korean peninsula. However, South Korea’s strategic behaviors chosen to achieve these interests are constrained by the uncertainty surrounding North Korea’s nuclear development, the country’s geopolitical locus, being a theater of power competition among the super- and major powers, and the export-oriented economy’s trade dependency and vulnerability to the international market.

The paper expects that the gradual changes in regional geopolitical environment will lead South Korea to simultaneously pursue (soft) hedging, regionalizing, and networking. Unless game-changing regional upheavals occur in East Asia, South Korea will carry on with its current (soft) hedging strategy in response to China’s rise by acceding to some of China’s terms, while strengthening the U.S.-ROK alliance. Meanwhile, the country will continue to regionalize with its East Asian and ASEAN neighbors to create multilaterally institutionalized security mechanisms by promoting regional peace and cooperative initiatives. It will also network among super- and major powers to promote its role as a conflict mediator.

Nevertheless, the middle power is less likely to risk the U.S.-ROK alliance by accommodating China’s hegemonic interests. It will strike a balance between the U.S. and China unless tensions escalate but cannot perpetually remain neutral between the two polarities for geopolitical reasons.

Reflecting South Korea’s likely and unlikely strategic options, the paper ends by suggesting that “the United States should recognize that South Korea’s hedging posture contributes to stability in Northeast Asia by mitigating China’s fear that the U.S.-ROK alliance might be directed against China.”

The post South Korea’s Strategic Importance Forgotten Amidst the Trump-Abe Honeymoon appeared first on Foreign Policy Blogs.

In Chad and Cameroon, Security Council hears of Boko Haram terror and survivors' needs

UN News Centre - sam, 04/03/2017 - 06:00
The United Nations Security Council is today in Chad, as part of a four-country visit &#8220to shine a spotlight&#8221 on the ongoing humanitarian challenges in the Lake Chad Basin region and draw international attention to the plight of about 11 million people.

UN aid chief calls for access, funds to prevent spread of South Sudan's famine

UN News Centre - sam, 04/03/2017 - 06:00
Hundreds of thousands of people in South Sudan will starve unless relief workers gain access to needy populations and more funding is raised, the United Nations Emergency Relief Coordinator today warned after meeting malnourished children who fled the raging conflict in the country.

Quality support key for people with disabilities to fully participate in their communities – UN rights expert

UN News Centre - sam, 04/03/2017 - 00:04
Access to good and safe support is of great importance for people with disabilities, as it helps them become independent and gain human rights, a United Nations independent expert said today, urging Member States to take legal, policy and financial actions to ensure their adequate support.

Intra-Syrian talks conclude in Geneva with ‘clear agenda’ and plans to resume later this month

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 23:38
The United Nations-facilitated intra-Syrian talks are “moving in the right direction,” the UN Special Envoy for Syria said today, wrapping up the latest round of discussions in Geneva with counter-terrorism added to the agenda and plans to resume in late March.

At first ‘playable’ UN conference, tech experts, gamers drive new thinking on global development

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 23:16
Hands-free gardening for a greener future, video gamers using their skills to help achieve the United Nations-led Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – these were just a few of the innovative and forward-looking ideas in the spotlight at the world body’s first ever ‘playable’ policy conference, held in the German city of Bonn.

UN migration agency launches $24.6 million appeal for drought-hit Somalia

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 21:54
To meet the emergency needs of over a million Somalis affected by drought, the United Nations migration agency is appealing to international donors for $24.6 million in funding.

Iraq: 15,000 children flee west Mosul over past week as battle intensifies, says UNICEF

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 21:20
Some 15,000 children have over the previous week fled the western section of Iraq’s Mosul city where fighting between the Government forces and terrorists is intensifying by the day, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has reported.

‘Political leadership needs to support its own people,’ urges UN mission chief in South Sudan

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 18:51
The top United Nations official in South Sudan is calling on the country’s political leadership to support its own people in the wake of a famine affecting some 100,000 people, and calling for local authorities to provide humanitarian access to those most in need.

Yemen: UN migration agency reports displacement spike in Taiz Governorate

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 17:52
With nearly 274,000 people displaced, Yemen’s Taiz is now among the crisis-torn country’s top five hosting governorates for such populations, a United Nations report has found.

Comment sortir de l'instabilité

Le Monde Diplomatique - ven, 03/03/2017 - 12:06

Trois ans après la chute du président Hosni Moubarak, le processus démocratique en Egypte est au point mort. Pis, tout laisse entrevoir un retour en arrière.

La révolution du 25 janvier 2011 a donné naissance à une configuration où l'incompatibilité des intérêts et des projets politiques des acteurs n'a pas permis d'accord même a minima sur l'institutionnalisation du jeu politique. En fonction du rapport de forces, chacun des camps a, à un moment ou l'autre, eu recours à la rue pour chercher à renverser un ordre institutionnel jugé défavorable. La jeunesse révolutionnaire l'a fait contre l'armée, puis contre les Frères musulmans. Les islamistes ont aussi cherché à peser par l'action protestataire, tantôt contre les libéraux, tantôt contre les militaires et les résistances de l'« Etat Moubarak ». Avec les manifestations du 30 juin 2013, c'est une coalition incluant les libéraux et les jeunes révolutionnaires, alliés à l'armée et à l'appareil d'Etat, qui a mis à bas la présidence Morsi.

Chaque fois, les acteurs se réclament de la « révolution » et du « peuple », qu'ils opposent à un jeu politique institutionnel dont ils remettent en cause la légitimité. Le verdict des urnes, dès lors, n'importe plus. Certains jeunes révolutionnaires à l'origine de la chute de Morsi accusaient ainsi les Frères d'être des « urnocrates » (sunduqratiyyun), tentés par un « majoritarisme antidémocratique ».

Cette tendance au populisme — au sens littéral d'appel au peuple pour contourner les institutions — s'est vue renforcée par la suspicion qui prévalait chez nombre des acteurs à l'égard du jeu partisan : les jeunes révolutionnaires ont, pour beaucoup, refusé d'institutionnaliser leur mouvement, et les Frères ont jusqu'au bout privilégié la logique de l'organisation fermée à celle du parti citoyen. Quant aux militaires, ils n'ont pas hésité à s'affranchir du verdict des urnes. Dans ce contexte, le débat politique s'est mué en une lutte existentielle, et les représentations de l'autre, de manière parfaitement symétrique, ont pris une tournure éradicatrice : au cheikh Youssef Al-Qaradaoui, qui considérait que les libéraux étaient des « intrus » (dukhala), les médias anti-Frères répondaient en qualifiant ces derniers d'agents de l'étranger.

Cette surenchère a presque naturellement mené au moment prétorien actuel. Pour justifier sa prise de pouvoir, l'armée a mis en avant un risque de guerre civile. C'est toute l'ambiguïté ici : si, du fait du lien organique qui l'unit à l'Etat, lui-même hérité dans sa structure et son personnel de la période Moubarak, elle est fondamentalement partisane, elle jouit d'une présomption de neutralité qui lui permet de tirer son épingle de jeu. Une fois au pouvoir, elle a néanmoins fait usage du même registre populiste et éradicateur. Ainsi des appels à la rue du général (devenu depuis maréchal) Abdel Fattah Al-Sissi, qui, le 26 juillet 2013, incitait les Egyptiens à descendre par milliers pour lui donner un « mandat » (tafwid) contre le « terrorisme ». Dans un tel climat, c'est non seulement la restauration démocratique qui est compromise, mais également l'indispensable double effort de redressement économique et de réformes institutionnelles.

Le champ politique s'est enfermé dans le cercle pervers du « politique en négatif », où chaque acteur relégué hors de la gouvernance s'acharne à faire échouer l'expérience de gouvernance de son adversaire. De l'été 2012 à juin 2013, une partie des administrations et une partie de la classe d'affaires ont ainsi opposé à M. Morsi une résistance plus ou moins active, provoquant un blocage de l'Etat. Et cette même stratégie de blocage est celle des groupes islamistes depuis la chute de M.Morsi.

La direction des Frères se heurte
à la radicalité des jeunes militants,
qui rêvent d'en découdre.

En face, la réponse des militaires est de maintenir la pression manu militari pour épuiser le mouvement de protestation. En réalité, c'est la traditionnelle dynamique de répression-radicalisation qui s'est enclenchée. Basé au Sinaï, le groupe des « partisans de Jérusalem » (Ansar Beit Al-Maqdis) combat l'armée et a perpétré plusieurs attentats de grande ampleur au Caire et dans le Delta. A cela s'ajoute la prolifération de groupuscules islamistes, comme Molotov ou Walla' (« Mets le feu »), qui revendiquent l'usage de la violence contre les symboles de l'Etat. Certains de leurs membres sont issus du salafisme révolutionnaire, tandis que d'autres sont de jeunes Frères en rupture de ban avec une confrérie accusée d'être déconnectée de la réalité.

Cette nouvelle radicalité n'est donc pas le fait de la direction des Frères et elle n'est pas dans son intérêt. Depuis l'été 2013, elle est dans une stratégie de tension avec le nouveau régime, qui a pour but de la placer en position de force en cas de négociation. Mais les Frères ne pourront garantir le retour au calme que s'ils contrôlent la situation. Or leur débordement par la base remet en cause la pertinence de cette stratégie.

La violence de basse intensité qui en résulte conforte l'option répressive. Celle-ci vise essentiellement les Frères, qui se sont mis à nu pendant deux ans et demi d'action publique et dont les réseaux sont connus. Les bénéficiaires en sont, d'une part, les militants radicaux, renforcés dans leur perspective selon laquelle, face à la répression, la violence est le seul recours ; d'autre part, l'appareil sécuritaire, qui étend ainsi son autorité, alors même que la contestation de celle-ci avait été à l'origine de la révolution de janvier 2011.

S'ils apparaissent comme étant en situation de force, les nouveaux dirigeants se trouvent en réalité dans une position précaire. Pour répondre aux attentes qu'il a suscitées, le maréchal Al-Sissi va devoir mener des réformes importantes. Il a d'ailleurs, dans un premier temps, annoncé son désir de rupture avec l'ère Moubarak, et a écarté certaines de ses figures les plus visibles, s'appuyant plutôt, pour gouverner, sur ses alliés libéraux. L'ampleur de la répression a néanmoins mis en péril l'alliance avec ces derniers : M. Mohamed El-Baradei a démissionné de la vice-présidence à la mi-août 2013, et même le mouvement Tamarrod, à l'origine des manifestations du 30 juin, est divisé. Surtout, M. Al-Sissi s'est aperçu que les libéraux n'avaient ni le savoir-faire ni les réseaux pour gouverner. Il s'en est donc remis aux cadres de l'ère Moubarak. Le nouveau premier ministre Ibrahim Mahlab, nommé le 25 février 2014 en remplacement du libéral Hazim El-Beblaoui, est un homme de l'ancien système par excellence.

Loin des promesses des débuts, M. Al-Sissi s'est ainsi trouvé contraint d'en revenir à la configuration du pouvoir en place jusqu'en janvier 2011. Or cette configuration est fondamentalement instable, et ce sont précisément ses contradictions internes qui ont permis la chute de M. Moubarak, avec la défection de l'armée. Les intérêts de cette dernière, comme pouvoir politique et économique, sont en effet incompatibles avec ceux d'un appareil sécuritaire galvanisé et des réseaux affairistes de l'ancien régime. Des tensions apparaissent déjà, notamment sur l'accaparement par l'armée des contrats provenant de l'aide des pays du Golfe.

Surtout, cette nouvelle configuration de pouvoir ne permettra pas à M. Al-Sissi d'entreprendre les réformes indispensables au retour de la stabilité, à savoir casser les réseaux d'accaparement de la richesse et adopter certaines mesures sociales, tout en réduisant l'hypertrophie de l'appareil d'Etat en y insufflant un minimum de bonne gouvernance. Il sera dès lors forcé de compenser par un recours accru à la répression.

Mais là encore, c'est compter sans le legs révolutionnaire : le 25 janvier 2011 comme le 30 juin 2013 ont instauré dans la population une croyance solide, à savoir qu'il est possible de destituer un président par l'action protestataire. Le recours à la rue s'est de facto institué en mode d'alternance légitime. Etant donné la volatilité de l'opinion publique majoritaire (passée en l'espace de deux ans de l'islamisme à l'anti-islamisme, et de l'antimilitarisme au promilitarisme), la logique populiste du 30 juin 2013 pourrait se retourner à terme contre ses promoteurs.

L'Egypte traverse un contexte d'instabilité en puissance et, dans les cercles proches de M. Al-Sissi, certains mesurent l'ampleur des défis. Pour un des conseillers des militaires, « le risque est réel de s'embarquer progressivement vers un scénario d'effondrement des institutions ». Un cadre d'un des partis représentés dans l'actuel gouvernement ajoute : « On va vers une troisième vague révolutionnaire. Mais elle sera beaucoup plus violente car, contrairement à 2011, où l'on n'avait que la société contre les appareils de sécurité, on a maintenant deux camps qui, à force de polarisation, sont fortement mobilisés et désireux d'en découdre. »

La seule solution réaliste consiste
en une ouverture politique le plus
vite possible, sous conditions.

La stratégie politique actuelle, en perpétuant le cercle pervers du « politique en négatif », n'apportera pas la stabilité nécessaire pour éviter les deux spectres de l'effondrement de l'Etat et d'une troisième révolution à la violence démesurée. Après des mois de répression brutale et de diabolisation réciproque, les blessures sont vives, et il est trop tôt pour parler de réconciliation nationale. La seule solution réaliste consisterait dès lors en une ouverture politique sous conditions, qui doit avoir lieu au plus vite car le temps joue contre l'ensemble des acteurs. Alors que la fumée unanimiste du moment prétorien ne s'est pas encore dissipée, cette voie demande un vrai courage politique de la part de tous les acteurs politiques susceptibles d'être impliqués. Ceux-ci pourraient être, d'une part, les réformistes du régime actuel, moubarakistes repentis et libéraux sincères, et, d'autre part, les islamistes réformistes (c'est-à-dire prêts à accepter l'idée d'un aggiornamento de leur organisation), unis contre la perspective d'un retour durable à un Etat répressif et miné par la corruption. Cela seul permettra de suspendre, temporairement au moins, la polarisation du champ politique. Or la polarisation est précisément ce qui empêche toute réforme réelle, puisqu'elle perpétue le « politique en négatif », tout acteur exclu du pouvoir cherchant à retourner à son profit le mécontentement de masses politiquement volatiles.

Au lieu des habituels arrangements tactiques et politiciens, ce pacte de la dépolarisation doit être motivé par des principes généraux (la commune volonté d'éviter l'effondrement de l'Etat) et un esprit (il devra être fondamentalement antipopuliste et « institutionnalisant »). Pour préparer ce pacte, il est temps que se rencontrent les non-populistes et les réformistes des deux bords, ceux qui ne sont pas dans l'éradication et qui sont prêts à reconnaître que des réformes sont nécessaires partout, d'abord dans les institutions étatiques, mais aussi dans les appareils politiques et militants. A terme, les réformes devront aussi s'attaquer à ce qui reste l'un des principaux obstacles à une démocratisation durable du pays : la place de l'armée dans le système politique et son empire économique — même s'il est évident que, étant donné le rapport de forces actuel, cette question sera difficile à résoudre, en tout cas à court terme. Là encore, le courage politique est nécessaire et la tentation de souscrire aux poussées radicales de la base, présente. Mais sans ce courage, l'Egypte pourrait devenir un Etat durablement dysfonctionnel, voire un Etat failli.

Quand la mer Rouge était ottomane

Le Monde Diplomatique - ven, 03/03/2017 - 09:33

Depuis plus d'un demi-siècle, précisément depuis Fernand Braudel et ses écrits sur la Méditerranée, l'espace maritime est devenu un objet d'études historiques. Nombre de sciences humaines sont alors sollicitées pour définir ces mondes où les rapports humains et les relations d'État à État sont façonnés par la géographie, la sociologie et l'économie. La tendance s'est affermie ces deux dernières décennies. Plusieurs travaux ont apporté leur contribution à ce qu'il convient d'appeler la « thalassologie », ou encore la « géohistoire maritime ». Mais, comme le note l'historien Alexis Wick, si les océans Atlantique et Indien, comme les mers Caspienne ou Baltique, ont fait l'objet de nombreuses études, tel n'est pas le cas de la mer Rouge (1). Cette absence sert de point de départ au travail de cet enseignant à l'Université américaine de Beyrouth. Dans un ouvrage dense et érudit, il entend réfléchir à la place de la mer, où qu'elle se trouve sur le globe, selon la conception même de la discipline historique moderne. Il montre que l'histoire, couplée à la géographie et à la cartographie, ne fait pas que décrire ou analyser la réalité, mais que c'est sa conception et son interprétation par des groupes humains qui poussent ces derniers à façonner le cours des événements.

Le cas de la mer Rouge illustre bien cette thèse. En effet, elle a été durant quatre siècles un « lac ottoman », puisque la Sublime Porte régnait sans partage sur ses deux rivages d'Asie et d'Afrique. Or, explique Wick à l'appui de ses recherches et d'un document qu'il reproduit, les Ottomans n'ont jamais vu comme un ensemble cohérent cette mer qu'ils appelaient, jusqu'au milieu du XIXe siècle, « mer de Suez », avant d'adopter le nom actuel. Entre-temps, les poussées expansionnistes des Européens dans la région ont, d'une certaine manière, conduit les Ottomans à adopter leur vision philosophique de l'histoire et de la géographie. Une vision où la mer est un sujet à part entière, presque un être physique, pour lequel les enjeux ne se limitent pas au contrôle des routes commerciales.

Si l'on reconnaît aujourd'hui aisément en Occident que les Ottomans étaient aussi de grands marins, c'est moins le cas pour les Arabes, longtemps présentés comme des peuples ayant tourné le dos à la mer. C'est oublier les Omanais, longtemps maîtres de l'océan Indien et des rivages de l'Afrique de l'Est, où ils installèrent de nombreux comptoirs, dont Zanzibar. Accompagnant une récente exposition à l'Institut du monde arabe à Paris, un ouvrage collectif rend justice à cet empire des mers dont les navigateurs, sous le parrainage du légendaire Sindbad, atteignirent la Chine et servirent vraisemblablement de pilotes à Marco Polo (2). Cette mainmise maritime s'est déployée du VIIe au XVIIe siècle, mais les boutres omanais ont tenu tête aux marines britannique et portugaise jusqu'au début du XIXe siècle. Aujourd'hui encore, le sultanat se passionne pour les compétitions mondiales de voile, allant jusqu'à encourager ses jeunes filles à pratiquer ce sport afin d'affirmer l'identité maritime du plus singulier des pays du Golfe.

(1) Alexis Wick, The Red Sea : In Search of Lost Space, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2016, 259 pages, 34,95 dollars.

(2) Collectif, Aventuriers des mers. VIIe-XVIIe siècle, Hazan, coll. « Catalogues d'exposition », Paris, 2016, 224 pages, 29 euros. L'exposition sera présentée au Musée des civilisations de l'Europe et de la Méditerranée (Mucem), à Marseille, du 7 juin au 9 octobre 2017.

In Iraq, UN's focal point for conflict-related sexual violence visits abused women

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 06:00
The United Nations focal point for ending conflict-related sexual violence is in Iraq where she today met with survivors of rape and other abuse by the Islamic State (ISIL).

On Wildlife Day, UN spotlights youth's role as today's change-makers, tomorrow's custodians

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 06:00
With the fate of the world&#39s wildlife soon to be in the hands of the next generation, the United Nations is observing this year&#39s World Wildlife Day with a call to harness the power of young people&#39s voices in conservation efforts.

UN agencies supporting Kenyans in drought-hit areas

UN News Centre - ven, 03/03/2017 - 06:00
The United Nations humanitarian chief today urged international support for the estimated 2.7 million people in parts of Kenya who urgently need food and water following the onset of a severe drought.

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